Coal Diver Everything you wanted to know about coal, but were afraid to ask.

This is a text-only version of the document "OSM Leaked Proposed Stream Rule Changes - Ch 3.11-14 - 2011". To see the original version of the document click here.

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CHAPTER 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 3 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT......................................................................... 3-1 3.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 3-1 3.1 Mineral Resources and Mining ............................................................................ 3-1 3.2 Geology and Seismicity ....................................................................................... 3-1 3.3 Soils...................................................................................................................... 3-1 Geomorphology and Fluvial Processes................................................................ 3-1 3.4 3.5 Topography .......................................................................................................... 3-1 3.6 Surface Water Hydrology .................................................................................... 3-1 Groundwater Hydrology ...................................................................................... 3-1 3.7 3.8 Water Resources .................................................................................................. 3-1 3.9 Radionuclide and Chemical Contaminant Transport ........................................... 3-1 3.10 Air Quality, Meteorology, and Noise .................................................................. 3-1 3.11 Land Use .............................................................................................................. 3-2 3.11.1The Role of Land and Mineral Ownership ................................................ 3-2 3.11.2Federally Owned Lands ............................................................................. 3-2 3.11.2.1 Lands Suitable for Coal Leasing ........................................ 3-3 3.11.2.2 Federal Coal Leases and the Competitive Leasing Process ................................................................................ 3-4 3.11.3Protected Lands Under Section 522(e) of SMCRA ................................... 3-4 3.11.3.1 Section 522(e)(1) ................................................................ 3-5 3.11.3.2 Section 522(e)(2) ................................................................ 3-8 3.11.3.3 Section 522(e)(3) ................................................................ 3-9 3.11.3.4 Sections 522(e)(4) and (5) ................................................ 3-10 3.11.4Lands Unsuitable for Mining ................................................................... 3-10 3.11.5Local Zoning Ordinances ......................................................................... 3-11 3.11.6Appalachian Basin ................................................................................... 3-12 3.11.7Colorado Plateau ...................................................................................... 3-14 3.11.8Gulf Region .............................................................................................. 3-16 3.11.9Illinois Basin ............................................................................................ 3-18 3.11.10 Northern Rocky Mountains & Great Plains ..................... 3-20 3.11.11 Northwest ......................................................................... 3-22 Other Western Interior ..................................................... 3-22 3.11.12 3.11.13 County Specific Land Use Within the Study Area .......... 3-24 3.12 Terrestrial and Aquatic Biology......................................................................... 3-25 3.12.0Introduction .............................................................................................. 3-25
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3.13

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Ecoregions in the U.S. Coal Regions ...................................................... 3-25 3.12.0.2 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Ecological Units ............................................................... 3-30 3.12.1Appalachian Basin ................................................................................... 3-32 3.12.1.1 General Ecological Setting of the Appalachian Basin ..... 3-32 3.12.1.2 Terrestrial Resources of the Appalachian Basin .............. 3-36 3.12.1.3 Aquatic Resources ............................................................ 3-40 3.12.2Colorado Plateau Coal Region ................................................................. 3-48 3.12.2.1 General Ecological Setting ............................................... 3-48 3.12.2.2 Terrestrial Resources for Colorado Plateau ..................... 3-53 3.12.2.3 Aquatic Resources for the Colorado Plateau.................... 3-60 3.12.3Gulf Coast Basin ...................................................................................... 3-66 3.12.3.1 General Ecological Setting ............................................... 3-68 3.12.3.2 Terrestrial Resources ........................................................ 3-69 3.12.3.3 Aquatic Resources ............................................................ 3-73 3.12.4Illinois Basin ............................................................................................ 3-79 3.12.4.1 General Ecological Setting for Illinois Basin Coal Region .............................................................................. 3-81 3.12.4.2 Terrestrial Resources ........................................................ 3-82 3.12.4.3 Aquatic Resources for Illinois Basin ................................ 3-84 3.12.5Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Basin ................................ 3-90 3.12.5.1 General Ecological Setting for Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains ............................................. 3-92 3.12.5.2 Terrestrial Resources for Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains ............................................................... 3-94 3.12.5.3 Aquatic Resources for Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains ............................................................... 3-96 3.12.6Northwest Basin ..................................................................................... 3-100 3.12.6.1 General Ecological Setting for Northwest Coal Region ............................................................................ 3-102 3.12.6.2 Terrestrial Resources for Northwest Basin .................... 3-102 3.12.6.3 Aquatic Resources for Northwest Coal Region ............. 3-102 3.12.7Other Western Interior Coal Region ...................................................... 3-108 3.12.7.1 General Ecological Setting ............................................. 3-110 3.12.7.2 Terrestrial Resources ...................................................... 3-111 3.12.7.3 Aquatic Resources for the Other Western Interior Coal Region .................................................................... 3-112 Protected Species ............................................................................................. 3-118 3.13.0Introduction ............................................................................................ 3-118 3.13.1Appalachian Basin Coal Region ............................................................ 3-149 3.13.1.1 3-149 3.13.1.2 Vascular Plants ............................................................... 3-149 3.13.1.3 Crustaceans..................................................................... 3-150 3.13.1.4 Mollusks ......................................................................... 3-150
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3.13.1.5 Insects ............................................................................. 3-151 3.13.1.6 Amphibians .................................................................... 3-151 3.13.1.7 Reptiles ........................................................................... 3-152 3.13.1.8 Fish ................................................................................. 3-152 3.13.1.9 Birds ............................................................................... 3-152 3.13.1.10 Mammals ........................................................................ 3-152 3.13.2Colorado Plateau Coal Region ............................................................... 3-152 3.13.2.1 Vascular Plants ............................................................... 3-153 3.13.2.2 Crustaceans..................................................................... 3-154 3.13.2.3 Mollusks ......................................................................... 3-154 3.13.2.4 Insects ............................................................................. 3-154 3.13.2.5 Amphibians .................................................................... 3-154 3.13.2.6 Reptiles ........................................................................... 3-154 3.13.2.7 Fish ................................................................................. 3-154 3.13.2.8 Birds ............................................................................... 3-154 3.13.2.9 Mammals ........................................................................ 3-155 3.13.3Gulf Region Coal Region....................................................................... 3-155 3.13.3.1 Vascular Plants ............................................................... 3-156 3.13.3.2 Crustaceans..................................................................... 3-156 3.13.3.3 Mollusks ......................................................................... 3-156 3.13.3.4 Insects ............................................................................. 3-156 3.13.3.5 Amphibians .................................................................... 3-157 3.13.3.6 Reptiles ........................................................................... 3-157 3.13.3.7 Fish ................................................................................. 3-157 3.13.3.8 Birds ............................................................................... 3-157 3.13.3.9 Mammals ........................................................................ 3-157 3.13.4Illinois Basin Coal Region ..................................................................... 3-158 3.13.4.1 Vascular Plants ............................................................... 3-159 3.13.4.2 Crustaceans..................................................................... 3-159 3.13.4.3 Mollusks ......................................................................... 3-159 3.13.4.4 Insects ............................................................................. 3-160 3.13.4.5 Amphibians .................................................................... 3-160 3.13.4.6 Reptiles ........................................................................... 3-160 3.13.4.7 Fish ................................................................................. 3-160 3.13.4.8 Birds ............................................................................... 3-160 3.13.4.9 Mammals ........................................................................ 3-160 3.13.5Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region ................... 3-160 3.13.5.1 Vascular Plants ............................................................... 3-161 3.13.5.2 Crustaceans..................................................................... 3-161 3.13.5.3 Mollusks ......................................................................... 3-161 3.13.5.4 Insects ............................................................................. 3-162 3.13.5.5 Amphibians .................................................................... 3-162 3.13.5.6 Reptiles ........................................................................... 3-162 3.13.5.7 Fish ................................................................................. 3-162 3.13.5.8 Birds ............................................................................... 3-162
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3.14

3.13.5.9 Mammals ........................................................................ 3-162 3.13.6Northwest Coal Region .......................................................................... 3-163 3.13.6.1 Vascular Plants ............................................................... 3-164 3.13.6.2 Crustaceans..................................................................... 3-164 3.13.6.3 Mollusks ......................................................................... 3-164 3.13.6.4 Insects ............................................................................. 3-164 3.13.6.5 Amphibians .................................................................... 3-164 3.13.6.6 Reptiles ........................................................................... 3-165 3.13.6.7 Fish ................................................................................. 3-165 3.13.6.8 Birds ............................................................................... 3-165 3.13.6.9 Mammals ........................................................................ 3-165 3.13.7Other Western Interior Coal Region ...................................................... 3-165 3.13.7.1 Vascular Plants ............................................................... 3-166 3.13.7.2 Crustaceans..................................................................... 3-166 3.13.7.3 Mollusks ......................................................................... 3-166 3.13.7.4 Insects ............................................................................. 3-167 3.13.7.5 Amphibians .................................................................... 3-167 3.13.7.6 Reptiles ........................................................................... 3-167 3.13.7.7 Fish ................................................................................. 3-167 3.13.7.8 Birds ............................................................................... 3-167 3.13.7.9 Mammals ........................................................................ 3-167 Wetlands Management..................................................................................... 3-168 3.14.1Regulations ............................................................................................ 3-168 3.14.2Wetlands Status and Trends ................................................................... 3-171 3.14.3Where Wetlands are Found .................................................................... 3-172 3.14.3.1 Appalachian Basin.......................................................... 3-173 3.14.3.2 Colorado Plateau Coal Bearing Region ......................... 3-173 3.14.3.3 Gulf Coast Lignite and Bituminous Coal-Bearing Area ................................................................................ 3-174 3.14.3.4 Illinois Basin .................................................................. 3-174 3.14.3.5 Northern Rocky Mountain and Great Plains Basin ........ 3-175 3.14.3.6 Northwest Coal-Bearing Area ........................................ 3-175 3.14.3.7 Alaska ............................................................................. 3-176 3.14.3.8 Other Western Interior ................................................... 3-176

TABLE OF TABLES
Table 3.11-1 Table 3.11-2 Table 3.11-3 Table 3.11-4 Appalachian Basin Region Land Use .................................................... 3-13 Colorado Plateau Region Land Use ...................................................... 3-15 Gulf Coast Region Land Use ................................................................. 3-17 Illinois Basin Region Land Use ............................................................. 3-19
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Table 3.11-5 Table 3.11-6 Table 3.12-1: Table 3.12-2: Table 3.12-3: Coal Region Table 3.12-4 Table 3.12-5: Table 3.12-6: Table 3.12-7:

Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Region Land Use........... 3-21 Other Western Interior Region Land Use .............................................. 3-23 USEPA Level III Ecoregions Distributed in the Coal Regions.............. 3-27 USFS's Ecoregion Classification System ............................................... 3-30 U.S. Forest Service Provinces Associated with the Appalachian Basin ................................................................................................................ 3-34 Common Fishes in the Appalachian Basin ............................................ 3-44 USFS Provinces Associated with the Colorado Plateau Coal Region .. 3-50 USFS Provinces Associated with the Gulf Coast Coal Basin ................ 3-68 USFS Provinces Associated with the Illinois Basin Coal Region.......... 3-81

Table 3.12-8: USFS Provinces Associated with the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region .......................................................................................................... 3-92 Table 3.12-9 Table 3.13-1 Active Mines USFS Provinces Associated with the Other Western Interior Coal Region . .............................................................................................................. 3-110 Federally Protected Species Reported for the 193 Coal Counties with .............................................................................................................. 3-119

TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 3.11-1 Figure 3.12-1 Lands Administered by Bureau of Land Management ............................. 3-3 USEPA Level III Ecoregions ................................................................. 3-26

Figure 3.12-2 USFS Provinces within the Appalachian Basin Coal Region ............................ 3-33 Figure 3.12-3 USFS Provinces within the Colorado Plateau Coal Region ................. 3-49

Figure 3.12-4 USFS Provinces Located Within the Gulf Coast Basin Coal Region ................. 3-67 Figure 3.12-5 USFS Provinces Located Within the Illinois Basin Coal Region ....................... 3-80 Figure 3.12-6 USFS Provinces Within the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Basin Coal Region ............................................................................................................................... 3-91 Figure 3.12-7 USFS Provinces Within the Northwest Basin Coal Region .............................. 3-101 Figure 3.12-8 USFS Provinces Within the Other Western Interior Coal Region ................... 3-109
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Figure 3.13-1 Number of Federally Listed Species for Each Taxonomic Group in the Appalachian Basin Coal Region .............................................................................................. 3-149 Number of Listed Species for Each Taxonomic Group in the Colorado Figure 3.13-2 Plateau Coal Region .............................................................................................................. 3-153 Figure 3.13-3 Coal Region Figure 3.13-4 Coal Region Number of Listed Species for Each Taxonomic Group in the Gulf Region .............................................................................................................. 3-156 Number of Listed Species for Each Taxonomic Group in the Illinois Basin .............................................................................................................. 3-158

Number of Listed Species for Each Taxonomic Group for the Northern Figure 3.13-5 Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region .................................................................... 3-161 Figure 3.13-6 Coal Region Number of Listed Species for Each Taxonomic Group for the Northwest .............................................................................................................. 3-164

Figure 3.13-7 Number of Listed Species for Each Taxonomic Group for the Other Western Interior Coal Region .................................................................................................. 3-166 Figure 3.14-1 Wetland Loss Areas.............................................................................. 3-172

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Chapter 3 Affected Environment
3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 INTRODUCTION MINERAL RESOURCES AND MINING GEOLOGY AND SEISMICITY SOILS GEOMORPHOLOGY AND FLUVIAL PROCESSES TOPOGRAPHY SURFACE WATER HYDROLOGY GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY WATER RESOURCES RADIONUCLIDE AND CHEMICAL CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT

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3.10 AIR QUALITY, METEOROLOGY, AND NOISE
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3.11 LAND USE
3.11.1 The Role of Land and Mineral Ownership
In many coal producing areas, the surface and subsurface ownership rights are held by different parties. This separation became a source of conflict with the growth of surface mining because the removal of the mineral entails temporary and permanent loss of surface uses and structures. SMCRA requires the permission of the surface owner or explicit rights by deed or contract as a prerequisite to processing a permit application. Because the economics of coal production favor large scale operations, it is common for coal mining interests to control potentially mineable land in large blocks. These owners may be land companies that own the land for the purpose of collecting royalty payments from coal mining companies, electric utilities, or others. (2003 MTM/VF EIS)

3.11.2 Federally Owned Lands
The seven coal-producing regions of the study area include lands where the Federal government holds title to either the coal, the surface, or in both. The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) has the authority to grant leases to operators wishing to mine on Federal lands. The Mineral Leasing Act of 1920, as amended, and the Mineral Leasing Act for Acquired Lands of 1947, as amended, grant the BLM responsibility for coal leasing on about 570 million acres of BLM, national forest and other Federal lands, as well as private lands where the mineral rights have been retained by the Federal Government. The BLM is charged with assuring that the development of coal resources is done in an environmentally sound manner and is in the best interests of the Nation. Figure 3.11.1 illustrates lands in the United States administered by the BLM.

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Figure 3.11-1

Lands Administered by Bureau of Land Management

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 3.11.2.1 Lands Suitable for Coal Leasing Not all public lands are available for coal exploration or leasing. The BLM administers a land use planning process through which public lands are reviewed for potential coal leasing. Requirements for the land use plan include multiple use, sustained yield, protection of critical environmental areas, application of specific unsuitability criteria, and coordination with other government agencies. There are four specific land use screening steps to develop land use planning decisions for federal coal lands. These are:
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Identification of coal with potential for development Determination if the lands are unsuitable for coal development Consideration of multiple use conflicts Surface owner consultation

The purpose of the coal screening part of the land use planning process (43 CFR 3420.1-4) is to identify those federal lands that are acceptable for further consideration for coal leasing and development.

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3.11.2.2 Federal Coal Leases and the Competitive Leasing Process The Federal Coal Leasing Amendments Act of 1976 (FCLAA), which amended Section 2 of the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920, requires that all public lands available for coal leasing be leased in a competitive process. There are two exceptions to this competitive process: (1) a lease may be issued on a noncompetitive basis to owners of pre-FCLAA prospecting permits and (2) modifications of existing leases can be made where contiguous lands of as much as 960 acres are added noncompetitively to an existing lease. There are two procedures for competitive coal leasing: (1) regional leasing where the BLM selects tracts within a region for competitive sale and (2) leasing by application where the public nominates a particular tract of coal for competitive sale. Regional coal leasing requires the BLM to select potential coal leasing tracts based on multiple land use planning, expected coal demand, and potential environmental and economic impacts. Leasing by application begins with BLM review of an application to lease a coal tract to ensure that it conforms to existing land use plans and contains sufficient geologic data to determine the "fair market value" of the coal. Upon review of the application and consideration of public comments, the BLM will reject, modify, or continue to process the application. Once the BLM accepts an application, the agency begins either an Environmental Analysis or Environmental Impact Statement. When an EA or a draft version of an EIS has been prepared, the BLM seeks public comment on the proposed lease sale. At the same time, the BLM will also consult with other appropriate Federal, state, and tribal government agencies. Sealed bids are accepted prior to the date of the sale and are publicly announced during the sale. The winning bid will be the highest bid that meets or exceeds the coal tract's presale estimated fair market value, assuming that all eligibility requirements are met and the appropriate fees and payments are attached (at a minimum, this amounts to the first year's annual rental payment and one-fifth of the amount bid). A federal coal lease has an initial term of 20 years, but it may be terminated in as few as 10 years if the coal resources are not diligently developed. A federal coal lease can also terminate if a lessee fails to pay any of the deferred bonus bid payments. In addition, if the lessee fails to comply with the provisions of the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920, as amended, or fails to comply with any applicable regulations, lease terms, or stipulations, the BLM may take legal steps to cancel the lease.

3.11.3 Protected Lands Under Section 522(e) of SMCRA
Section 522(e) prohibits surface coal mining operations in certain areas, subject to "valid existing rights" and except for those operations which existed on August 3, 1977. Lands designated by section 522(e)(1) include any lands within the boundaries of units of the National Park System; the National Wildlife Refuge System; the National System of Trails; the National Wilderness Preservation System; the Wild and Scenic Rivers System, including study rivers designated under section 5(a) of the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act; and National Recreation Areas designated by Act of Congress. Lands designated by sections 522(e)(2) include any Federal lands within the
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boundaries of any National Forest. Lands designated by section 522(e)(3) include lands where mining would adversely affect publicly owned parks and properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places. Lands designated by sections 522(e)(4) and (5) include lands within 100-feet of public roads and cemeteries and within 300-feet of occupied dwellings, public buildings, schools, churches, community or institutional buildings, and public parks. 3.11.3.1 Section 522(e)(1) Areas protected under Section 522(e)(1) include any lands within the boundaries of units of the National Park System, the National Wildlife Refuge System, the National Wilderness Preservation System, the Wild and Scenic Rivers System, the National System of Trails, and National Recreational Areas. Federal regulations (43 CFR Subpart 3461) prohibit the leasing of Federal coal within these lands. Approximately 5,197,407 acres of lands protected by Section 522(e)(1) are underlain by Federal and private coal reserves. This represents 25 percent of the coal bearing lands under Section 522(e). Most of the acreage on 522(e)(l) lands (78 percent) is in the Western region. Of the other regions, Central Appalachia and Interior contain the most acres of non-Federally owned coal 522(e)(l) lands that are underlain by coal. 3.11.3.1.1 National Park System The National Park Service Organic Act of 1916 (16 U.S.C. 1 et seq.) created the National Park Service (NPS) and is the core of NPS authority and the definitive statement of the purposes of the parks and the Service's mission. There is a great diversity in NPS site designations. These include such designations as national park, national preserve, national monument, national memorial, national historic site, national seashore, and national battlefield. Some titles are clearly descriptive of the areas and features they represent, indicating the nature of the primary resource or attraction within the area. Although best known for its great scenic parks, more than half the areas of the National Park System preserve places and commemorate persons, events, and activities important in United States history. On a national scale, the acreage underlain by coal within National Parks areas constitutes approximately five percent of all coal bearing areas under the protection of section 522(e). The acreage underlain by coal within National Parks areas constitutes approximately 1.3 percent of all National Park areas. 3.11.3.1.2 National Wildlife Refuge System The National Wildlife Refuge System (NWRS) is the only extensive system of federally-owned lands managed chiefly for the conservation of wildlife. The 89-million-acre refuge system is administered under a number of laws and legal authorities including the Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956, the Wetlands Loan Act of 1961, the Refuge Recreation Act of 1962, the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966, and many Executive orders. The NWRS comprises a national network of wildlife environments containing the most widely distributed public land resources in the United States. There are systems in all the major ecological zones of North America. Each refuge, though part of a network, is an independent microcosm with many biological features and values of its own. Associated with these lands are
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diverse plant and animal communities and renewable and nonrenewable resources of benefit to present and future generations. Although the largest numbers of the systems were established to protect nesting and migratory birds, the bulk of the system acreage was acquired by withdrawal from public domain to preserve representative samples of wildlife habitats essential to sustain unique, rare, threatened, or endangered wildlife. NWRS lands are used for outdoor recreation (including fishing and hunting in some refuges), wildlife habitat and research, ecological studies, and, in some refuges, mineral production. Approximately 3,276,452 acres of the NWRS are underlain by coal reserves. On a national scale, the acreage underlain by coal within NWRS areas constitutes approximately 16 percent of all coal bearing 522(e) areas. In addition, the acreage underlain by coal within Wildlife Refuge System areas constitutes approximately 3.7 percent of all Wildlife Refuge System areas. The Interior and Western coal regions contain nearly all of the acreage in the System that it underlain by coal. 3.11.3.1.3 National System of Trails The National Trails System Act (16 U.S.C. 1241 et seq.) was passed to promote the development of a national network of scenic and recreational trails. The Act created three categories of trails: National Scenic Trails of which the Appalachian and the Pacific Crest Trails were the first; National Recreation Trails which are existing trails recognized by the Federal government as part of the trails system; and Side and Connecting Trails which provide additional access to and between components of the trails system. In 1978, the Act was amended to include a fourth category, National Historic Trails, which recognizes past routes of exploration, migration, and military action. The National Trails System Act encourages Federal, State and local agencies to work together to establish scenic trails, preserve their natural setting, and protect them from incompatible development. As with wild and scenic rivers, Federal ownership is not mandated. The National Trails System is administered by the National Park Service. More than 780 National Recreation Trails have been designated throughout the country. They are located in every State, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico, totaling more than 9,000 miles in length. Most of these trails, 513, are on Federal lands. Of the remainder, 147 are State trails, 82 are local, 31 are on private lands, and 12 are managed by two or more entities. There are approximately 86,094 acres in the National Trails System that are underlain by coal reserves. On a national scale, the acreage underlain by coal within National Trails System constitutes approximately 0.4 percent of all coal bearing areas protected by section 522(e) of SMCRA. About 50 percent and 32 percent of this acreage is located in the Western and Interior regions, respectively. 3.11.3.1.4 National Wilderness Preservation System The passage of the Wilderness Act of 1964 (16 U.S.C. 1131 et seq.) gave Congress the authority to designate public lands as part of the National Wilderness Preservation System. Lands designated as wilderness are managed by one of four Federal agencies: the Forest Service, Bureau of Land Management, National Park Service and Fish and Wildlife Service.
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Specific criteria must be applied in order to include land within the wilderness system. A wilderness area must provide opportunity for primitive and unconfined types of recreation, be largely untouched by human activities, be of sufficient size to be preserved in an unimpaired state, and possess features of scientific interest. Restrictions on activities allowed in wilderness areas (subject to the valid existing rights provision of the Wilderness Act) protect them from drilling, logging, mechanized forms of transportation, and permanent development, including roads. Of the 95 million acres in the National Wilderness Preservation System, 39 million acres are in National Park System units, 33.7 million acres are in National Forests, 1.6 million acres are on Bureau of Land Management lands, and 20.7 million acres are managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. On a national scale, the acreage underlain by coal within wilderness system areas constitutes approximately 6.5 percent of all coal bearing 522(e) areas. In addition, the acreage underlain by coal within wilderness system areas constitutes approximately 1.4 percent of all wilderness system areas. About 87 percent of the area underlain by coal is located in the Western Region. 3.11.3.1.5 Wild and Scenic Rivers In 1968, the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act (16 U.S.C. 1271-1287) was enacted to establish a system to protect rivers with outstanding scenic, recreational, geologic, wildlife, historical, cultural, or similar values. Rivers in the system, or portions of rivers, may be designated as wild, scenic, or recreational, based on the level of disturbance to the river and its surrounding habitat. The Wild and Scenic Rivers Act provides two methods for adding a river to the National Wild and Scenic River System. The first method is by an act of Congress. Congress can designate a river directly, but usually it first requires a detailed study to determine the qualification of a river area as a potential addition to the system and then makes a decision. Federally managed components of the system are designated by Acts of Congress. Rivers designated for protection by Congress are managed under plans approved by the Secretary of the Interior or Secretary of Agriculture. No Federal agency can then permit or financially assist the construction of water resource projects that might adversely affect a designated river segment. Rivers under study for inclusion in the system are usually afforded the same protection as those rivers or river segments already designated. Under the second method, State rivers and streams may become units of the river system when established under State laws and developed with river management plans acceptable to the Secretary of the Interior. The Secretary may then designate the river area as a component of the system. Once a river area is designated a component of the National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, the objective of the managing agency, either local, State, or Federal, is to preserve or enhance the qualities which qualified the river for inclusion within the system. Wild and Scenic Rivers administered by the National Park Service are units or are within units of the National Park System. Those administered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service are components of the National Wildlife Refuge System.
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The primary protection tool for the river system is planning, although a designated river also can be protected through Federal acquisition of adjacent lands and prohibition of Federal dam building. A river may continue to be overseen by State and local governments and, where appropriate, be managed in partnership with the Federal government. Of the nearly 3.6 million miles of rivers in the United States, there are 149 rivers or river segments protected in the National Wild and Scenic River System, totaling about 10,294 miles. There are approximately 39,258 acres in the National Wild and Scenic River System that are underlain by coal reserves. On a national scale, the acreage underlain by coal within National Wild and Scenic River System areas constitutes approximately 0.2 percent of all coal bearing areas protected by Section 522(e) of SMCRA. All of these areas are located in Central Appalachia. 3.11.3.1.6 National Recreation Areas Originally, National Recreation Areas in the National Park System were units surrounding reservoirs impounded by dams built by other Federal agencies. The National Park Service manages many of these areas under cooperative agreements. The concept of recreational areas has grown to encompass other lands and water set aside for recreational use by acts of Congress and now includes major areas in urban centers. There are also National Recreation Areas outside the National Park System that are administered by the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Approximately 310,629 acres of National Recreation Areas are underlain by coal reserves. On a national scale, the acreage underlain by coal within National Recreation Areas constitutes approximately 1.5 percent of all coal bearing 522(e) areas. Fifty-one percent of the coal-bearing areas are in National Recreation Areas located in the Western region. The remaining acreage is located in the Northern and Central Appalachian Region. 3.11.3.2 Section 522(e)(2) Section 522(e)(2) protects Federal lands within the boundaries of any National Forest or National Grassland. The National Forest System includes 155 National Forests on 191 million acres, significant amounts of which have been repurchased from private owners. These lands encompass about 10 percent of the land area of the United States. National Forests are managed in a manner consistent with the Multiple-Use Sustained Yield Act of 1960 and the National Forest Management Act of 1976. The Forest Service prepares individual Forest Land Management Plans under the National Forest Management Act of 1976. National Forest Land Management Plans allocate specific areas of land to specific mixes of uses, which may include mining. Allowable uses of National Forest lands include but are not limited to watershed protection, timber production, outdoor recreation, mineral production (including coal mining), and fish and wildlife habitat.

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Lands managed by the Forest Service receive 42 percent of the total recreation visitor days of use occurring on Federal lands. One-third of the recreational use occurs at developed sites, with the remainder dispersed on trails and in the unconfined forest. Approximately 7,424,369 acres of National Forest System lands are underlain by coal reserves. Most potentially affected areas are in the Eastern United States because the reserves are mostly privately-owned in the East. Of the nearly three million acres of National Forest in the East which is underlain by coal, one-third is located in the Interior regions and one-third is located in the Central Appalachia region. 3.11.3.3 Section 522(e)(3) Section 522(e)(3) of SMCRA prohibits surface coal mining operations "which will adversely affect any publicly owned park or places included in the National Register of Historic Places" (emphasis added). In the absence of adverse impacts, a VER determination would not be required. However, the passage goes on to read "unless approved jointly by the regulatory authority and the Federal, State or local agency with jurisdiction over the park or historic site". Uses of these lands include outdoor recreation, education, fish and wildlife conservation, historic and archaeological preservation and research. See discussion under 522(e)(5) for additional prohibitions concerning public parks. Throughout the United States, Federal and State parks encompass an estimated 505,587 acres and 1,966,051 acres, respectively which are underlain by coal. Sixty-two percent of this acreage is located in the Interior region. County, city and local parks add greatly to the total acres of these publicly owned properties. Publicly owned parks are distributed throughout the various coal regions. Coal development adjacent to NPS units will have varying levels of impact depending on a variety of factors. For example, a NPS unit encompassing a gorge area, not dependent on external subsurface hydrology, watersheds, or viewshed considerations, may not be adversely impacted from surface coal mining up to the minimum allowable distance of 300 feet. However, an NPS unit that is created as a part of a larger historical scene, viewshed, watershed, or airshed may be adversely affected by surface coal mining significantly further away, thereby triggering the special protection of section 522(e)(3). The National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, as amended, codified the concept of a national register of historic properties and vastly broadened its scope. The National register is authorized by the Act to include properties of State and local as well as national significance. Based on information provided by the Keeper of the National Register, the National Register has grown from 1,500 properties in 1969, consisting primarily of National Historic Landmarks, to more than 80,000 listings in 1994. Because mining will generally not be feasible in urban areas, this EIS generally does not address historic properties located in urban areas. Also historic properties representing or lying in 522(e)(1) areas are not considered separately in this EIS, because that acreage is already addressed as 522(e)(1) acreage. Therefore, about 26,000 "rurally located" sites are considered in this EIS. Properties are being listed on the National Register at an increasing rate resulting in an increased potential for conflict with mining. The 4,730 sites that are underlain by coal occupy 749,475 acres. Seventy percent of these coal bearing acres are located in the West. Properties listed on
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the National Register represent nearly all facets of American history and present-day life: prehistoric archeological sites; eighteenth century missions and forts; nineteenth century iron furnaces, canals, covered bridges, and government structures; battlefields of the Revolutionary and Civil Wars: and dwellings of every conceivable type constructed between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries. It must be noted that under 522(e)(3) only properties actually included on the National Register are protected. These listed properties represent only a small portion of prehistoric and historic period cultural resources recorded or likely to exist in the coal fields. 3.11.3.4 Sections 522(e)(4) and (5) Structures and facilities protected under Sections 522(e)(4) and (5) include public roads, occupied dwellings, public buildings, schools, churches, communities, institutional buildings, public parks, and cemeteries. The number and distribution of these features vary with land use across the country. Section 522(e)(5) protects cemeteries due to their association with cultural values related to the disposition and reverence for the dead. A cemetery is defined in 30 CFR 761.5 as "any area of land where human bodies are interred". OSM interprets the definition to include an intentional disposition of dead in any manner, in absence of other evidence, whether it be a single individual or the more typical multi-grave situation. OSM, in 30 CFR 761.11(g), allows that cemeteries "may be relocated if authorized by applicable State law or regulations". Once a cemetery is properly relocated the prohibition of Section 522(e)(5) no longer apply to the original site. Public parks are also protected under provisions of 522(e)(5), which prohibits mining within 300 feet of the park boundaries. Under this prohibition there is no "waiver" potential or alternative protection as is possible for cemeteries. Therefore, section 522(e)(5) protects public parks and section 522(e)(3) protects publically owned parks from the adverse effects of mining even if the mining operations are not occurring within 300 feet. Additionally, National Register listed properties may also be protected under other 522(e) provisions. Many national parks, for example, themselves are also National Register properties. Other parks, houses, churches, community and institutional buildings protected 522(e)(5) may also be listed on the National Register.

3.11.4 Lands Unsuitable for Mining
Certain lands which are not protected by the provisions outlined in SMCRA section 522(e) can also be designated as unsuitable for surface coal mining operations through a petition process. 30 CFR 762 sets forth the criteria for lands to be designated as unsuitable for mining. After the filing of a petition and public hearing, the regulatory authority can make such a designation if it is shown that the operation:   Is incompatible with existing State or local land use plans or programs; Affects fragile or historic lands in which the operations could result in significant damage to important historic, cultural, scientific, or aesthetic values or natural systems;
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

Affects renewable resource lands in which the operations could result in substantial loss or reduction of long-range productivity of water supply or of food or fiber products; or Affects natural hazard lands in which the operations could substantially endanger life and property, such lands to include areas subject to frequent flooding and areas of unstable geology.



Within 30 days of the receipt of a petition to designate lands as unsuitable for mining, the RA must notify the petitioner of the completeness of the application. If the petition is determined to be incomplete or frivolous, the petitioner must be notified of the reasons why. If all or a portion of the lands for which this designation is being sought is already covered under a SMCRA permit (or an administratively complete SMCRA permit application, including the first newspaper advertisement), those lands under permit are exempt from such designation. Under the lands unsuitable regulations, any person may intervene in the proceeding by filing allegations of facts describing how the designation would directly affect the intervenor. The intervenor must supply supporting evidence of those direct affects. Within 10 months of receipt of a complete petition, the RA must hold a public hearing in the locality of the area covered by the petition, unless such hearing is waived by the petitioners and intervenors. The hearing may include examination and cross-examination of expert witnesses, the petitioners and intervenors. All relevant portions of the administrative record, testimony and comments are considered by the RA in making its decision on the petition. A final written decision must be issued by the RA, including a statement of reasons, within 60 days of completion of the public hearing. If no public hearing is held, the decision must be issued within 12 months of receipt of a complete petition. In reaching its decision, the RA must use the information contained in the administrative record, information provided by other governmental agencies, and any other relevant information submitted during the public comment period on the petition. Prior to designating lands as unsuitable, the RA must also provide a detailed written statement using the existing and available information on the potential coal resources of the petition area, the demand for those coal resources, and the impact of such designation on the environment, economy and supply of coal.

3.11.5 Local Zoning Ordinances
The primary tool of local government in controlling mining development is through the local zoning authority. Significant land use issues are raised when mining operations are proposed for a parcel of land. Conflicts between mining and other potentially competing uses are particularly apparent where the mine will be located near municipal and residential areas and where the mineral estate has been severed from the surface estate. Where the state or federal government has created a regulatory regime for permitting the particular mining operations involved, local zoning may or may not be preempted by the superior state or federal law. In Pennsylvania, for example, the state surface coal mining law specifically preempts all local ordinances purporting to regulate coal mining except with respect to local
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zoning ordinances. Additionally, where federal lands are involved, local zoning may not be used to veto a federal program to develop the minerals on the federal lands. Where the local zoning authority has not been preempted, local governments may adopt ordinances controlling mining. Ordinances that would likely be permissible might include restricting mining in residential areas, providing regulations for the use of roads and highways, and conditioning the use of the land in certain districts. Nevertheless, in practice, few local land use planning controls and/or zoning restrictions have been developed to deal specifically with mining operations. In fact, in most rural areas where mines would generally be located, there is no local land use zoning restriction at all. (Hartman, 1992)

3.11.6 Appalachian Basin
Approximately 60% of the land in the Appalachian Basin is deciduous forest. There are several large National Forests within the study area, including the Daniel Boone National Forest and the Monongahela National Forest. Most of the farmland in the Appalachian coal regions is in Northern Appalachia, with small agricultural areas in Central and Southern Appalachia. Approximately 10% of the land in the Appalachian Basin is pasture/hay land, and 4% is utilized for cultivated crops. Of all the regions in the study area, the Appalachian Basin has the highest instance of high intensity urban land use at .25%, and the second-highest instance of low intensity urban land use at 2.16%. These figures can be primarily attributed to the large metropolitan areas in Pennsylvania and related urban sprawl. Table 3.11.1 provides a detailed breakdown of land use percentages for the individual states within this region. (USGS, 2001)

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Perennial Ice/Snow (%)

Emergent Herbaceous Wetlands (%)

Deciduous Forest (%)

Evergreen Forest (%)

Cultivated Crops (%)

AL KY MD OH PA TN VA WV REGION AVG.

0.39% 1.08% 0.90% 0.19% 0.56% 0.54% 1.07% 0.89% 0.65%

2.83% 0.21% 1.57% 10.84% 6.18% 0.30% 0.17% 1.29% 4.05%

33.82% 72.55% 69.92% 55.34% 56.72% 58.21% 65.33% 78.34% 60.24%

0.04% 0.00% 0.13% 0.03% 0.10% 0.00% 0% 0.08% 0.06%

17.63% 0.66% 4.47% 1.37% 3.85% 2.17% 1.87% 2.12% 4.65%

3.02% 8.64% 0% 2.25% 0.68% 9.18% 7.07% 2.12% 2.94%

0.26% 0.06% 0.11% 0.36% 0.39% 0.22% 0.08% 0.11% 0.25%

2.15% 1.73% 1.22% 2.74% 2.61% 2.38% 2.02% 1.40% 2.16%

0.72% 0.44% 0.40% 0.82% 1.12% 0.72% 0.74% 0.60% 0.80%

9.55% 4.06% 1.60% 0.04% 6.37% 8.37% 2.51% 1.64% 4.66%

5.41% 4.39% 5.56% 7.78% 6.47% 5.10% 4.29% 4.80% 5.74%

1.94% 0.51% 1.45% 1.26% 1.23% 2.01% 0.21% 0.80% 1.14%

11.53% 5.48% 12.44% 16.36% 12.73% 10.37% 14.29% 5.67% 10.66%

0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 0%

7.68% 0.20% 0% 0.27% 0.75% 0.14% 0.35% 0.03% 1.41%

3.03% 0.00% 0.23% 0.37% 0.24% 0.28% 0.01% 0.09% 0.58%

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Table 3.11-1

Appalachian Basin Region Land Use

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Woody Wetlands (%)

High Intensity Urban (%)

Low Intensity Urban (%)

Barren Land (RockSand-Clay) (%)

Medium Intensity Urban (%)

Mixed Forest (%)

Shrub/Scrub (%)

Pasture/Hay (%)

Open Water (%)

Open Space (%)

Grasslands / Herbaceous (%)

STATE

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3.11.7 Colorado Plateau
A substantial percentage of the land in this region is Federal government land. Additionally, most of the coal in the Colorado Plateau region is Federally owned. A significant portion of the remaining coal (approximately 20 percent of Western region coal) is non-Federally owned, but minable only in association with Federal coal (BLM, 1985). As previously mentioned, surface features overlying these Federal coal reserves would be protected under the Bureau of Land Management's land use planning procedures. Approximately 47% of the land in the Colorado Plateau consists of shrub/scrubland. Nearly 24% is evergreen forest. Less than 3% of the land in the Colorado Plateau is utilized for agricultural purposes (cultivated crops and pasture land). A large portion of this region is sparsely populated, and there are few urban areas. Table 3.11.2 provides a detailed breakdown of land use percentages for the individual states within this region. (USGS, 2001)

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Deciduous Forest (%) Cultivated Crops (%) Barren Land (RockSand-Clay) (%)

Table 3.11-2
Emergent Herbaceous Wetlands (%) Evergreen Forest (%)

Colorado Plateau Region Land Use
Woody Wetlands (%)
0.23% 1.03% 0.30% 0.29% 0.53%

High Intensity Urban (%)

Low Intensity Urban (%)

Perennial Ice/Snow (%)
0% 0.01% 0% 0.00% 0.00%

Medium Intensity Urban (%)

Mixed Forest (%)

AZ CO NM UT REGION AVG.

1.84% 2.28% 1.01% 7.96% 2.88%

0.08% 0.75% 0.64% 0.25% 0.48%

0% 20.28% 0.10% 5.76% 7.81%

0.09% 0.08% 0.02% 0% 0.05%

20.28% 33.50% 15.62% 21.17% 23.67%

13.32% 6.50% 24.41% 10.06% 13.26%

0.00% 0.01% 0.01% 0.00% 0.01%

0.14% 0.40% 0.27% 0.35% 0.30%

0.02% 0.09% 0.13% 0.09% 0.08%

0% 1.41% 0.00% 1.22% 0.69%

0.58% 0.57% 0.61% 0.74% 0.61%

0.05% 0.30% 0.28% 0.33% 0.24%

0.12% 4.73% 0.63% 2.38% 2.19%

63.23% 28.06% 55.96% 49.40% 47.20%

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Shrub/Scrub (%)

Pasture/Hay (%)

Open Water (%)

Open Space (%)

Grasslands / Herbaceous (%)

STATE

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3.11.8 Gulf Region
Primary land use in the Gulf Region is pasture land at over 26%. The substantial number of large cattle farms and other agricultural activities in Texas account for the majority of this land use percentage. Shrub/scrub land accounts for almost 16% of the land in the region. Compared to other regions in the study area, the Gulf Region has the highest percentage of wetlands at close to 11% of the total land. Much of these wetlands occur in Louisiana, which has two operating lignite mines. Table 3.11.3 provides a detailed breakdown of land use percentages for the individual states within this region. (USGS, 2001)

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Barren Land (RockSand-Clay) (%) Deciduous Forest (%) g Herbaceous Wetlands (%)

Table 3.11-3
Evergreen Forest (%)

Gulf Coast Region Land Use
Low Intensity Urban (%) Perennial Ice/Snow (%) Medium Intensity Urban (%) Mixed Forest (%) Shrub/Scrub (%)
14.31% 10.79% 16.26% 15.79%

LA MS TX REGION AVG.

0.21% 0.36% 0.66% 0.59%

3.18% 2.94% 3.90% 3.77%

5.94% 27.49% 11.21% 11.21%

0.96% 0.82% 0.21% 0.32%

26.59% 20.60% 7.98% 10.83%

3.69% 0.07% 3.37% 3.28%

0.03% 0.00% 0.10% 0.08%

1.49% 0.12% 2.71% 2.45%

0.15% 0.05% 0.29% 0.26%

9.30% 12.39% 8.74% 8.96%

2.73% 3.89% 3.53% 3.44%

2.68% 0.37% 1.50% 1.60%

10.85% 7.52% 29.99% 26.67%

0% 0% 0% 0%

17.89% 12.57% 9.56% 10.73%

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Woody Wetlands (%)

Cultivated Crops (%)

Pasture/Hay (%)

Open Water (%)

Open Space (%)

Grasslands / Herbaceous (%)

STATE

High Intensity Urban (%)

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3.11.9 Illinois Basin
Of all the coal producing regions in the study area, the Illinois Basin has the highest instance of cultivated cropland. Cropland accounts for over 48% of the land use in this region. The majority of the cropland is located in Illinois and Indiana. Deciduous forest lands are also a predominant feature in this region, making up nearly 26% of the landscape. The third most common land use in this region is pasture and hay lands, which makes up almost 11% of the area. The Illinois Basin also has a high rate of low intensity urban use at 2.09%. This figure is due to the presence of large, sprawling metropolitan suburb areas such as Chicago and Indianapolis within the region. Table 3.11.4 provides a detailed breakdown of land use percentages for the individual states within this region. (USGS, 2001)

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Barren Land (RockSand-Clay) (%) Deciduous Forest (%)

Table 3.11-4
Emergent Herbaceous Wetlands (%) Evergreen Forest (%)

Illinois Basin Region Land Use
Low Intensity Urban (%) Perennial Ice/Snow (%) Medium Intensity Urban (%) Mixed Forest (%) Shrub/Scrub (%)
0.00% 0.05% 0.17% 0.06%

IL IN KY REGION AVG.

0.06% 0.13% 0.09% 0.09%

52.58% 55.30% 35.27% 48.22%

20.28% 24.12% 36.07% 25.88%

0.16% 0.32% 1.37% 0.55%

0.18% 1.12% 2.52% 1.10%

0.95% 0.90% 2.75% 1.46%

0.17% 0.22% 0.16% 0.18%

3.25% 1.33% 0.94% 2.09%

0.68% 0.48% 0.35% 0.53%

0.03% 0.01% 0.04% 0.03%

5.38% 6.20% 4.54% 5.34%

2.13% 2.33% 2.24% 2.21%

12.86% 6.73% 11.60% 10.92%

0% 0% 0% 0%

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Woody Wetlands (%)
1.29% 0.78% 1.87% 1.33%

Cultivated Crops (%)

Pasture/Hay (%)

Open Water (%)

Open Space (%)

Grasslands / Herbaceous (%)

STATE

High Intensity Urban (%)

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3.11.10 Northern Rocky Mountains & Great Plains
Like the Colorado Plateau, a fair portion of this region is Federal lands and subject to those restrictions outlined previously in this chapter. Also similar to the Colorado Plateau, the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains region is predominantly schrub/scrublands. This feature makes up for 45.12% of the regional land use. Wyoming accounts for a substantial part of this statistic, with 65% schrub/scrublands. Grasslands also provide a substantial percentage of the land use, with nearly 30% for the Region. This region is sparsely populated with widely scattered population centers. All three categories of urban land use (low, medium and high intensity) collectively make up for 0.36% of the total land use. Table 3.11.5 provides a detailed breakdown of land use percentages for the individual states within this region. (USGS, 2001)

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Barren Land (RockSand-Clay) (%)

Table 3.11-5

Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Region Land Use
Low Intensity Urban (%) Perennial Ice/Snow (%) Medium Intensity Urban (%) Mixed Forest (%) Shrub/Scrub (%)
52.08% 17.96% 0.10% 65.02% 45.12%

Deciduous Forest (%) g Herbaceous Wetlands (%)

Evergreen Forest (%)

CO MT ND WY REGION AVG.

0.48% 0.39% 0.28% 1.04% 0.72%

8.47% 12.38% 38.57% 0.25% 7.44%

11.78% 0.28% 1.71% 0.73% 2.13%

0.15% 0.49% 2.98% 0.62% 0.67%

14.18% 12.11% 0.01% 6.97% 8.99%

5.86% 51.72% 34.00% 22.64% 29.76%

0.12% 0.01% 0.00% 0.00% 0.02%

0.68% 0.26% 0.24% 0.14% 0.25%

0.33% 0.07% 0.03% 0.05% 0.09%

0.88% 0.10% 0.01% 0.10% 0.20%

1.00% 0.77% 3.49% 0.43% 0.81%

0.33% 0.32% 8.50% 0.30% 0.85%

3.02% 1.26% 8.07% 1.15% 1.89%

0% 0% 0% 0.00% 0.00%

0.63% 1.88% 2.02% 0.55% 1.05%

2 3

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Woody Wetlands (%)

Cultivated Crops (%)

Pasture/Hay (%)

Open Water (%)

Open Space (%)

Grasslands / Herbaceous (%)

STATE

High Intensity Urban (%)

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

3.11.11 Northwest
As stated in Chapter 3.1, the Northwest Region is home to one active coal mine, the Usibelli Mine, which lies approximately 30 miles southwest of Fairbanks, Alaska and 10 miles northeast of Healey, Alaska. This area is surrounded by the Denali National Park and Denali State Wilderness to the west; the Tanata Valley State Forest to the north and east; and Nelchina Public Use Area to the South. Specific land use values for this area are not available. According to an October 1998 report by the BLM, approximately 65% of Alaska is owned and managed by the U.S. federal government as public lands, including a multitude of national forests, national parks, and national wildlife refuges. Of these, the BLM manages 87 million acres (350,000 km²), or 23.8% of the state. The coal underlying the Usibelli mine is owned by the State of Alaska and leased to the Usibelli Mining Company.

3.11.12 Other Western Interior
The predominant land use in this region is pasture and grazing, making up over 38% of the landscape with some grassland areas in Kansas and Oklahoma. Oklahoma and Arkansas also have over one quarter of their land areas covered in deciduous forestlands. Missouri has a high instance of cultivated crops, which accounts for over 31% of the land use in that state The densely populated areas in this region that are underlain by coal reserves include cities such as Kansas City, Kansas and Missouri; and Tulsa, Oklahoma. Table 3.11.6 provides a detailed breakdown of land use percentages for the individual states within this region. (USGS, 2001)

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Barren Land (RockSand-Clay) (%) Deciduous Forest (%)

Table 3.11-6
Emergent Herbaceous Wetlands (%) Evergreen Forest (%)

Other Western Interior Region Land Use
Low Intensity Urban (%) Perennial Ice/Snow (%) Medium Intensity Urban (%) Mixed Forest (%) Shrub/Scrub (%)
2.65% 0.19% 0.21% 0.60% 0.64%

AR KS MO OK REGION AVG.

0.14% 0.06% 0.10% 0.12% 0.11%

0.97% 17.15% 31.37% 1.81% 7.99%

30.70% 17.26% 9.92% 26.70% 23.34%

0.23% 0.15% 0.40% 0.07% 0.14%

8.66% 0.04% 0.01% 9.60% 6.70%

10.19% 6.26% 0.69% 13.74% 10.58%

0.55% 0.04% 0.02% 0.09% 0.11%

4.55% 0.89% 0.65% 0.67% 1.01%

1.42% 0.13% 0.08% 0.20% 0.27%

6.61% 0.90% 0.02% 3.08% 2.60%

5.21% 4.16% 3.97% 4.42% 4.38%

2.17% 1.44% 1.00% 2.82% 2.31%

24.83% 49.60% 46.57% 35.40% 38.41%

0% 0% 0% 0% 0%

2 3 4

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Woody Wetlands (%)
1.13% 1.72% 4.97% 0.68% 1.41%

Cultivated Crops (%)

Pasture/Hay (%)

Open Water (%)

Open Space (%)

Grasslands / Herbaceous (%)

STATE

High Intensity Urban (%)

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3.11.13 County Specific Land Use Within the Study Area
Appendix ___ provides a map and pie chart reflecting land use statistics for each county within the study area. (USGS, 2001) These maps and associated charts are organized alphabetically by Region, State and County.

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3.12 TERRESTRIAL AND AQUATIC BIOLOGY
3.12.0 Introduction
A wide variety of habitats are distributed throughout the coal regions of the U.S. This section presents a general description of the terrestrial and aquatic habitats reported to occur in the 193 coal producing counties that comprise the study area for this document. Coal deposits are found outside of the 193 county study area, however the biological resources distributed in those areas were not evaluated. The discussion herein is organized by vegetative cover types for terrestrial systems and flowing vs. ponded water for aquatic systems to synthesize information that transcends state boundaries. Some issues transcend coal region boundaries, and required a more general discussion; those issues are presented in appendices. 3.12.0.1 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Ecoregions in the U.S. Coal Regions The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) has developed a hierarchical system for classifying areas of the continental U.S. that have similar ecological characteristics (USEPA, 2007). These classified areas are commonly referred to as USEPA Ecoregions. USEPA’s Ecoregions are subdivided into finer and finer levels of detail. The Agency’s definitions of their different levels of analysis are as follows (USEPA, 2007): Level I Ecoregions are the coarsest level dividing North America into 15 broad ecological regions. At Level II, the continent is subdivided into 52 ecoregions and at Level III, the continental U.S. is further subdivided into 98 ecoregions. Level IV ecological regions are even further subdivisions. The subdivisions of ecological regions at each hierarchical level are still changing slightly as further refinements are made. The USEPA defines ecoregions as “areas of relative homogeneity in ecological systems and their components” (USEPA, 1999). The approach USEPA has used to create ecoregion maps is based on analyzing the patterns and composition of biotic and abiotic phenomena that affect or reflect differences in ecosystem quality and integrity (Wiken, 1986; Omernik, 1987 and 1995). These phenomena include geology, physiography, vegetation, climate, soils, land use, wildlife and hydrology. One phenomenon does not carry more weight than any other. USEPA looks for patterns of coincidence between geographic phenomena that cause or reflect difference in ecosystem characteristics (Omernik and Bailey, 1997). Figure 3.12-1 shows the USEPA Level III Ecoregions.

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Figure 3.12-1

USEPA Level III Ecoregions

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These draft designations of Level I, II, and III ecological regions of North America in current use by USEPA are an update and revision of files developed by Canada, the United States, and Mexico in the late 1990's in a cooperative project for the Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC, 1997). These revised ecological regions were developed in a meeting between representatives of the three nations and CEC in April 2006 in Newport, Oregon. They are considered draft and subject to further refinements. At this time, Level III ecoregions in California are being revised and the Level III ecoregions in Arizona have yet to be subdivided. Table 3.12-1 summarizes the USEPA Level III ecoregions that are distributed throughout the coal regions. Table 3.12-1: USEPA Level III Ecoregions Distributed in the Coal Regions Coal Region Appalachian Basin Appalachian Basin Appalachian Basin Appalachian Basin Appalachian Basin Appalachian Basin Appalachian Basin Appalachian Basin Appalachian Basin USEPA Level III Code 69 55 61 71 62 59 60 45 67

USEPA Level III Ecoregion Name Central Appalachians Eastern Corn Belt Plains Erie Drift Plain Interior Plateau North Central Appalachians Northeastern Coastal Zone Northern Allegheny Plateau Piedmont Ridge and Valley

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USEPA Level III Ecoregion Name Southeastern Plains Southwestern Appalachians Western Allegheny Plateau Arizona/New Mexico Mountains Arizona/New Mexico Plateau Central Basin and Range Chihuahuan Deserts Colorado Plateaus High Plains Madrean Archipelago Southern Rockies Southwestern Tablelands Wasatch and Uinta Mountains Wyoming Basin Arkansas Valley East Central Texas Plains Interior Plateau Interior River Valleys and Hills Mississippi Alluvial Plain Mississippi Valley Loess Plains Ouachita Mountains Ozark Highlands South Central Plains Southeastern Plains Southern Coastal Plain Southern Texas Plains Texas Blackland Prairies Western Gulf Coastal Plain Central Corn Belt Plains Eastern Corn Belt Plains Huron/Erie Lake Plains Interior Plateau Interior River Valleys and Hills Northern Lakes and Forests

Coal Region Appalachian Basin Appalachian Basin Appalachian Basin Colorado Plateau Colorado Plateau Colorado Plateau Colorado Plateau Colorado Plateau Colorado Plateau Colorado Plateau Colorado Plateau Colorado Plateau Colorado Plateau Colorado Plateau Gulf Region Gulf Region Gulf Region Gulf Region Gulf Region Gulf Region Gulf Region Gulf Region Gulf Region Gulf Region Gulf Region Gulf Region Gulf Region Gulf Region Illinois Basin Illinois Basin Illinois Basin Illinois Basin Illinois Basin Illinois Basin

USEPA Level III Code 65 68 70 23 22 13 24 20 25 79 21 26 19 18 37 33 71 72 73 74 36 39 35 65 75 31 32 34 54 55 57 71 72 50

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USEPA Level III Ecoregion Name Ozark Highlands Southern Michigan/Northern Indiana Drift Plains Western Corn Belt Plains Canadian Rockies High Plains Idaho Batholith Middle Rockies Northern Basin and Range Northern Glaciated Plains Northern Rockies Northwestern Glaciated Plains Northwestern Great Plains Snake River Plain Southern Rockies Southwestern Tablelands Wasatch and Uinta Mountains Wyoming Basin Blue Mountains Cascades Central Basin and Range Central California Valley Coast Range Columbia Plateau Eastern Cascades Slopes and Foothills Klamath Mountains Mojave Basin and Range North Cascades Northern Rockies Puget Lowland Southern and Central California Chaparral and Oak Woodlands Willamette Valley Arkansas Valley Boston Mountains

Coal Region Illinois Basin Illinois Basin Illinois Basin Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Northwest Northwest Northwest Northwest Northwest Northwest Northwest Northwest Northwest Northwest Northwest Northwest Northwest Northwest Other Western Interior Other Western Interior

USEPA Level III Code 39 56 47 41 25 16 17 80 46 15 42 43 12 21 26 19 18 11 4 13 7 1 10 9 78 14 77 15 2 6 3 37 38

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USEPA Level III Ecoregion Name Central Great Plains Central Irregular Plains Chihuahuan Deserts Cross Timbers Edwards Plateau Flint Hills Interior River Valleys and Hills Ouachita Mountains Ozark Highlands Western Corn Belt Plains
(Source: USEPA, 2007)

Coal Region Other Western Interior Other Western Interior Other Western Interior Other Western Interior Other Western Interior Other Western Interior Other Western Interior Other Western Interior Other Western Interior Other Western Interior

USEPA Level III Code 27 40 24 29 30 28 72 36 39 47

3.12.0.2 U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Ecological Units The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), U.S. Forest Service (USFS) adopted a national Hierarchical Framework of Terrestrial Ecological Units in 1993 to use an ecological approach to management of natural resources (USDA-USFS, 1993). The framework consists of eight hierarchical levels of ecological units that are grouped for planning and analysis scales: ecoregions, subregions, landscapes, and land units (Cleland et al., 1997). The USFS Ecoregion Classification is used to provide a general ecological description for the terrestrial and aquatic biology of each coal region (Table 3.12-2). Both the 2003 and 2008 Programmatic Environmental Impact Statements (EISs) related to mining activities (USEPA, 2003; Office of Surface Mining [OSM], 2008) included discussions for the first four provinces listed above in addition to the Southern Cumberland Mountains section which is now described as being a part of both the Central Ridge and Valley and the Northern Cumberland Mountains sections (McNab et al., 2007). Table 3.12-2:
Application Scale

USFS's Ecoregion Classification System
Principal Map Unit Design Criteria Broad climatic zones or groups (e.g., dry, humid, tropical) Regional climatic types, vegetational affinities (e.g., prairie or forest), soil order Dominant potential natural vegetation, highlands or mountains with complex vertical climate-vegetation-soil zonation

National (Ecoregions)

Ecological Units (Map Scale Range) Domain (1:30,000,000 or smaller) Division (1:30,000,000 to 1:7,500,000) Province (1:15,000,000 to 1:5,000,000)

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Section (1:7,500,000 to 1:3,500,000) Regional (Subregions) Subsection (1:3,500,000 to 1:250,000)

Watershed/National Forest (Landscape)

Land Type Association (1:250,000 to 1:60,000)

Project (Land Unit)

Land Type (1:60,000 to 1:24,000)

Geomorphic province, geologic age, stratigraphy and lithology, phases of soil orders, potential natural vegetation, potential natural communities (PNC) Geomorphic process, surficial geology, phases of soil orders, subregional climatic data, PNC formation or series Geomorphic process, geologic formation, surficial geology, and elevation, Phases of soil subgroups, families, or series, Local climate, PNC—series, subseries, plant associations Landform and topography (elevation, aspect, slope gradient, and position), Phases of soil subgroups, families, or series, Rock type, geomorphic process, PNC—plant associations

(Source: Cleland et al., 1997)

The USDA-USFS classification system is used herein to organize the discussion of the different ecosystems distributed within each coal region. Vector digital data updated (in 2007) for the entire lower 48 states was available, and data for the 192 coal counties in the lower 48 states was therefore used. The method used to analyze the spatial data was to conduct a Union of each ecological region’s Geographic Information System (GIS) dataset to the Coal region’s GIS dataset. After the Union was complete, areas without overlap were deleted. The resulting data were exported in tabular format and sorted by coal region to identify which ecoregions were coincident with each coal region. The USDA-USFS classification interchangeably uses the terms “cover type” and “PNCs” to describe predominant vegetation in a Section. The term “cover type” is adopted herein. Complete coverage was not available in the USDA-USFS database for the coal areas in Alaska; therefore, USEPA’s Level III ecoregion classification and habitat descriptions were used for that portion of the analysis. The following description of biological resources in the coal regions of the U.S. is intended to describe general trends that apply across each region. It is not intended to present baseline environmental conditions for any particular project site. The discussion for each coal region is organized to present information about the terrestrial resources as well as the lotic and lentic aquatic resources. Appendix 3.12-A summarizes both the bioassessment methods used by state and federal agencies in the U.S. as well as the biological criteria programs currently in use in the 50 states and was prepared to provide context for understanding the complex issues involved in studying and classifying aquatic resources (particularly stream ecosystems). A discussion of general ecological principles of running water, lakes and reservoirs as they apply to coal mining issues is contained in Appendix 3.12-B. Appendix 3.12-C provides additional resources on protected species, including migratory birds. Appendix 3.12-D provides additional resources on invasive plant species and noxious as they relate to the coal regions.
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3.12.1 Appalachian Basin
3.12.1.1 General Ecological Setting of the Appalachian Basin The Appalachian Basin Coal Region encompasses the coal-producing counties in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, West Virginia, Virginia, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, and Maryland (Figure 3.12-2). The counties with current active coal mining cover an area of approximately 70,750 square miles. Much of the following discussion focuses on the central portion of the Appalachian coal region as the Bituminous Coal Basin, which extends in a northeast to southwest direction along the Appalachian Mountains (USEPA, 2003).

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Figure 3.12-2 USFS Provinces within the Appalachian Basin Coal Region

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Table 3.12-3 lists the ecological provinces found in the Appalachian Basin. Table 3.12-3: U.S. Forest Service Provinces Associated with the Appalachian Basin Coal Region Ecological Province Central Appalachian Broadleaf ForestConiferous Forest-Meadow Central Interior Broadleaf Forest Eastern Broadleaf Forest Midwest Broadleaf Forest Northeastern Mixed Forest Southeastern Mixed Forest Area of Coal Region in Province (square miles) 14,917 24 25,474 5 890 6,417

The general province descriptions provided below for the ecological provinces distributed within the Appalachian Coal Region come from McNab (2007), Cleland et al (1997), Bailey (1995) and USDA-USFS (1993). 3.12.1.1.1 Central Appalachian Broadleaf Forest-Coniferous Forest-Meadow Province This province is composed of subdued low mountains of crystalline rocks and open low mountains with valleys underlain by folded strong and weak strata. Some dissected plateaus with mountainous topography are also present. The relief is high (up to 3,000 feet). Elevations range from 300 to 6,000 feet, and are higher to the south, reaching 6,684 feet. This province has a temperate climate with cool summers and short, mild winters. Annual precipitation is plentiful and evenly distributed with short, infrequent periods of water deficit. Vegetation is characterized by a tall, closed canopy of deciduous broadleaf forests with mesophytic and drought-tolerant species; vegetation changes to coniferous forest or shrub lands at higher elevations. The Central Appalachian Broadleaf Forest-Coniferous Forest-Meadow province covers approximately 65,172 square miles in the U.S., a large portion of which is in the Appalachian Basin coal region. Streams in this province extending from the Northern Ridge and Valley are into the Northern Cumberland Mountains have a trellis drainage pattern (Messinger and Chambers, 2001; OSM, 2008). Surface waters in the Northern Cumberland Mountains section are generally slightly alkaline (7.0–8.0 pH units) and contain more dissolved solids (200–350 milligrams per liter [mg/L]) than do streams in the Northern Ridge and Valley section (Messinger and Chambers, 2001). Streams have the highest flow in the spring due to relatively frequent rainfall and snowmelt; many smaller streams dry up by summer and are not recharged until October to November (McNab and Avers, 1994). Streams in this area are generally more alkaline and productive than in the Allegheny Mountains (McNab and Avers, 1994). Streams in the Allegheny Mountains of West Virginia and the southwestern corner of Pennsylvania have
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drainage patterns that are primarily dendritic (McNab et al., 2007). Mass wasting, karst solution, and fluvial erosion, transport and deposition are the primary geomorphic processes (McNab et al., 2007). 3.12.1.1.2 Central Interior Broadleaf Forest Province The climate of this province is continental with hot summers. Summer soil moisture deficits are common. Vegetation is broadleaf deciduous forests with somewhat open canopy and greater density of species tolerance of drought. The Central Interior Broadleaf Forest province covers approximately 119,790 square miles in the U.S., of which only a very small fraction is in the Appalachian basin coal region. 3.12.1.1.3 Eastern Broadleaf Forest Province This province includes topography of diverse nature and origin. The northern part has been glaciated. West of the Appalachian Mountains are the Appalachian Plateaus. The sedimentary formations of the Appalachian Plateaus are nearly horizontal, a typical plateau structure, but they are so elevated and dissected that the landforms are mostly hilly and mountainous. Altitudes range from about 1,000 feet along their western edge to somewhat more than 3,000 feet on the eastern edge. East of the mountains is the Piedmont Plateau and coastal plain, where altitudes range from sea level to about 1,000 feet. This province has a continental-type climate of cold winters and warm summers. Vegetation is characterized by tall, cold-deciduous broadleaf forests that have a high proportion of mesophytic species. This province covers approximately 101,902 square miles in the U.S., of which about 40% is in the Appalachian Basin coal region. This region contains some of the greatest aquatic animal diversity in North America, especially for species of amphibians, fishes, mollusks, aquatic insects, and crayfishes (USEPA, 2006). This province contains many small natural lakes, small artificial ponds, several large reservoirs which occur along perennial streams (McNab and Avers, 1994). Stream gradients in the western Alleghenies range from steep, headwater streams to low-gradient rivers that flow into the Ohio River, and a portion that flows into Lake Erie (McNab and Avers, 1994). Streams throughout the Southern Unglaciated Allegheny Plateau have a dendritic drainage pattern (Messinger and Chambers, 2001; OSM, 2008). This plateau is characterized by a relatively high density of streams, with gradients ranging from high, steep headwaters streams to low gradient rivers that flow into the Ohio River (McNab and Avers, 1994). There are numerous small springs which are mainly ephemeral (McNab and Avers, 1994). The Cumberland Plateau is a moderately dissected region of dendritic drainages which has resulted from a broad uplift of gently-dipping strata to a level-bedded plateau, fluvial erosion, and mass wasting (McNab et al., 2007). This plateau contains a moderate to high density of small and medium size perennial streams and associated rivers, most with moderate rates of flow and velocity (McNab and Avers, 1994). The Central Ridge and Valley area in eastern Tennessee has a dissected landscape of open hills with folded, faulted, and uplifted belt of parallel valleys and ridges with carbonate rock formations dominating (McNab et al., 2007). This area has a high density of small to medium size perennial streams and associated rivers, most with
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moderate to high rates of flow (McNab and Avers, 1994). Large rivers found within this section include the Tennessee and Clinch Rivers. 3.12.1.1.4 Midwest Broadleaf Forest Province This province has been glaciated, and most areas are rolling, but some sections of the province are nearly flat. The climate in this province is continental with warm to hot summers. Frequent growing season water deficits. Flat to hilly terrain with features associated with former glaciations. Vegetation consists of cold-deciduous, hardwood-dominated forests with a high proportion of species able to tolerate mild, brief, periodic drought during the late summer. The Midwest Broadleaf Forest province covers approximately 141,746 square miles in the U.S., only a tiny fraction of which is in the Appalachian Basin coal region. 3.12.1.1.5 Southeastern Mixed Forest Province This ecoregion has generally uniform maritime climate with mild winters and hot, humid summers. Annual precipitation is evenly distributed, but a brief period of mid to late summer drought occurs in most years. Landscape is hilly with increasing relief farther inland. Forest vegetation is a mixture of deciduous hardwoods and conifers. The Southeastern Mixed Forest Province covers approximately 181,556 square miles in the U.S, of which only a small amount is in the Appalachian Basin coal region. The streams of the Southeastern Mixed Forest Province in Alabama has a moderate density of small to medium size perennial streams and associated rivers, mostly with low to moderate rates of flow and moderate velocity (McNab and Avers, 1994). The streams of Alabama are noted for their diversity of native freshwater fishes, native freshwater gill-breathing snail species, freshwater mussel species, and native freshwater turtle species. 3.12.1.1.6 Northeastern Mixed Forest Province This province is characterized by a modified continental climatic regime with maritime influence along the Atlantic Ocean. Winters are moderately long with continual ground snow cover. Annual precipitation is generally equally distributed with a peak during summer. Vegetation of this area consists of forests that provide a transition between boreal conifers and broadleaf deciduous. The Northeastern mixed Forest province covers approximately 52,703 square miles in the U.S., of which only a small amount is in the Appalachian Basin coal region. Streams in this province are characterized by deeply incised high gradient and bedrock controlled systems in the upland, and low and moderate gradient, mature streams in the valleys (McNab and Avers, 1994). Numerous waterfalls and rapids exist where streams cross beds of resistant rock. There are a large number of rapidly moving streams and rivers that flow into the Allegheny and Susquehanna Rivers (McNab and Avers, 1994). 3.12.1.2 Terrestrial Resources of the Appalachian Basin The Appalachian Basin includes many different terrestrial habits over a broad area of the eastern United States, extending from Mississippi northeast to Pennsylvania.

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Beginning in Mississippi and running through central and northern Alabama, the Appalachian Basin is located within the Southeastern Mixed Forest Province which is characterized by oakpine, loblolly-shortleaf pine, or oak-hickory cover types. Within the less mountainous regions of Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio, West Virginia, and Pennsylvania, the Appalachian Basin is located within the Eastern Broadleaf Forest Province. Cover types include: oak-pine, loblolly-shortleaf pine maple-beech-birch, and aspen-birch cover types. In the more mountainous regions of Tennessee, Kentucky, West Virginia, Virginia, and Pennsylvania, the Appalachian Basin is located within the Central Appalachian Broadleaf ForestConiferous Forest-Meadow Province including oak-hickory and maple-beech-birch cover types. Along its northern edge in Pennsylvania, the Appalachian Basin is located within the Northeastern Mixed Forest Province. Cover types include maple-beech-birch and oak-hickory, maple-beech-birch, and aspen-birch. The common vegetation and fauna in each cover type are described briefly below: 3.12.1.2.1 Oak-Hickory Cover Type Vegetation. The oak-hickory cover type varies from open to closed woods with a strong to weak understory of shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants. By definition, oak and hickory must make up 50 percent of the stand, singly or in combination. Sweetgum and red cedar are close associates in the southern region of this cover type. Maple, elm, yellow-poplar, and black walnut often are close associates in eastern and northern parts of the oak forest and the oak-hickory-bluestem mosaic. The major shrubs are blueberry, viburnum, dogwood, rhododendron, and sumac. The major vines are woodbine, grape, poison ivy, greenbrier, and blackberry. Important herbaceous plants are sedge, panicum, bluestem, lespedeza, tick clover, goldenrod, pussytoes, and aster; many more are abundant locally. Numerous benefits are provided by the oak-hickory land cover type, including wildlife, timber, watershed protection, recreation, and wilderness and achieving a desirable mix of these benefits requires careful management (Skeen et al., 1993). Fauna. The fauna of the oak-hickory cover type is similar to that of other eastern hardwood and hardwood-conifer areas and varies somewhat from north to south. Important animals in the cover type include the white-tailed deer, black bear, bobcat, gray fox, raccoon, gray squirrel, fox squirrel, eastern chipmunk, white-footed mouse, pine vole, short-tailed shrew, and cotton mouse. Bird populations are large. The turkey, ruffed grouse, bobwhite, and mourning dove are game birds in various parts of the cover type. Breeding bird populations average about 225 pairs per 100 acres and include some 24 or 25 species. The most abundant breeding birds include the cardinal, tufted titmouse, wood thrush, summer tanager, red-eyed vireo, blue-gray gnatcatcher, hooded warbler, and Carolina wren. The box turtle, common garter snake, and timber rattlesnake are characteristic reptiles.

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3.12.1.2.2 Oak-Pine Cover Type Vegetation. The Oak-Pine cover type is characterized by forests in which 50 percent or more of the stand is hardwoods, usually upland oaks, but in which southern pines, mainly shortleaf pine, make up 25–49 percent of the stand. Common associates include sweetgum, hickory, and yellow-poplar. Fauna. The fauna is similar to that of the adjacent oak-hickory cover type. Animals include the white-tailed deer, fox squirrel, and cottontail, and birds include the mourning dove, bobwhite, and turkey. Many small mammals are present, and the avian fauna is quite varied. 3.12.1.2.3 Maple-Beech-Birch Cover Type Vegetation. A forest is classified as being of the Maple-Beech-Birch cover type when 50 percent or more of the stand is maple, beech, or yellow birch, singly or in combination. Common associates include hemlock, elm, basswood, and white pine. In Virginia and West Virginia, specific species may include: Sugar Maple, American Beech, Yellow Birch, Yellow buckeye, Striped Maple, Mountain Maple, Smooth Blackberry, and Hobblebush. Herb layers are moderately sparse to moderately dense, with graminoid-rich patches tending to occur on the drier slope convexities (Fleming et al., 2010). Fauna. The white-tailed deer occurs throughout much of the maple-beech-birch cover type. The hardwood forest and the openings and farms within it provide food and cover for a varied fauna. The black bear is present in many areas. The wolf is no longer common, but the red fox and gray fox are rather widespread, as is the bobcat. Several species of squirrels are in the forest, and a number of smaller rodents inhabit the forest floor. The ruffed grouse is widespread, and the bobwhite inhabits the interspersed farmlands and forest openings. Songbirds include the ovenbird, red-eyed vireo, hermit thrush, scarlet tanager, blue jay, black-capped chickadee, wood pewee, and magnolia warbler. 3.12.1.2.4 Aspen-Birch Cover Type Vegetation. This cover type is characterized by forest in which 50 percent or more of the stand is aspen, balsam poplar, paper birch, or gray birch, singly or in combination. Common associates include maple and balsam fir. Other species include sassafras, various maples, and various cherries (Fike, 1999). Fauna. The fauna of the aspen-birch cover type is similar to those of the spruce-fir and whitered-jack pine cover types, with which this cover type is intermingled. The white-tailed deer and black bear are common. The coyote, bobcat, great horned owl, and other predators feed on a variety of small mammals. The ruffed grouse is present. Among the songbirds are the tufted titmouse, blue jay, hairy woodpecker, downy woodpecker, wood thrush, eastern wood pewee, goldfinch, catbird, and red-eyed vireo.

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3.12.1.2.5 White-Red-Jack Pine Cover Type Vegetation. Forests in which 50 percent or more of the stand is eastern white pine, red pine, or jack pine, singly or in combination, represent the White-Red-Jack Pine cover type. Common associates include oak, eastern hemlock, aspen, birch, northern white-cedar, and maple. Fauna. The white-tailed deer and black bear are the most common larger mammals in this cover type, and the moose inhabits the extreme northern portion. The eastern timber wolf is very scarce and is classified as an endangered species. The coyote, bobcat, great horned owl, and hawks are among current predators. The snowshoe rabbit and other small forest mammals are the main food source of the predators already mentioned. Porcupines inhabit parts of the cover type and become a problem in forest management when they are overly abundant. Breeding bird populations average about 153 pairs per 100 acres. The black burnian and black-throated green warblers are the most abundant. Other birds include the spruce grouse, ruffed grouse, whippoorwill, crested flycatcher, wood pewee, white-breasted nuthatch, veery, tanagers, ruffed grouse, great horned owl, pileated woodpecker, hairy woodpecker, downy woodpecker, blue jay, chickadees, red-eyed vireo, black-and white warbler, ovenbird, redstart, black-throated blue warbler, hermit thrush, magnolia warbler, Canada warbler, yellow-bellied sapsucker, olive-sided flycatcher, red-breasted nuthatch, brown creeper, winter wren, blue-headed vireo, myrtle warbler, slate-colored junco, and white-throated sparrow. The endangered Kirtland’s warbler occurs in limited areas. 3.12.1.2.6 Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Cover Type Vegetation. Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine cover type is characterized by forests in which 50 percent or more of the stand is loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, or other southern yellow pines, singly or in combination. Common associates include oak, hickory, sweetgum, blackgum, red maple, and winged elm. The main grasses are bluestems, panicums, and longleaf uniola. Dogwood, viburnum, haw, blueberry, American beautyberry, yaupon, and numerous woody vines are common. Fauna. The fauna varies with the age and stocking of the timber stand, the percentage of deciduous trees, and the proximity to openings, bottom-land forest types, etc. The white-tailed deer is widespread, as is the cottontail. When deciduous trees are present, the fox squirrel is common on uplands. Gray squirrels are found along intersecting drainages. Raccoon and fox are found throughout the cover type and are hunted in many areas. The eastern wild turkey, bobwhite, and mourning dove are widespread. The most common birds include the pine warbler, cardinal, summer tanager, Carolina wren, ruby-throated hummingbird, blue jay, hooded warbler, eastern towhee, and tufted titmouse. 3.12.1.2.7 Invasive Species Invasive species are considered by many to THE greatest natural disaster in the United States. Executive Order (EO) 11987, Exotic Organisms, addresses requirements related to the control of exotic species for federal projects. Exotic and invasive species are those plants or animals which are not native to the project area, but were introduced as a result of human-related activities.
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Exotic and invasive species can threaten native species and ecosystems due to aggressive growth, reproduction or survival rate, and diseases or parasites they may transmit to native species. Invasive species and noxious weeds are known to be contributing to the decline of federally protected plants and animals in the coal regions of the U.S. Examples of this phenomenon are summarized in the following section in Table 3.14-3. Noxious weeds are invasive plants that are designated and regulated by state and federal laws, such as the Federal Noxious Weed Act, because they are detrimental to agriculture, commerce, and/or public health, and are recognized as a major threat to ecosystems. Invasive plants and noxious weeds have biological traits that enable them to colonize new areas and successfully compete with native species. They can transform the structure and function of ecosystems through direct competition; changes in nutrient cycling, succession, and disturbance regimes; and shifts in evolutionary selection pressures. There are estimated to be over 2,000 species of nonnative plants in the US, over half of which are considered invasive species (U.S. Congress Office of Technology and Assessment, 1993). Noxious weeds and invasive plants distributed in the states of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, West Virginia, Virginia, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi are summarized in Appendix 3.12-D. 3.12.1.3 Aquatic Resources 3.12.1.3.1 Lotic Systems (Rivers and Streams) Most of the major rivers and tributaries in the United States east of the Mississippi originate in the mountains of the Appalachian region (USEPA, 2003). First- through twelfth-order streams (as defined by Vannote et al, 1980), ephemeral streams, and intermittent streams occur in the Appalachian region with headwater streams generally originating at higher elevations (USEPA, 2003). Major rivers that originate in this region include, but are not limited to, the Susquehanna, James, Potomac, and New rivers. 3.12.1.3.1.1 Habitat

A variety of flowing water habitats is present in the Appalachian Basin coal region. These include ephemeral, intermittent, low order (1st – 3rd) and higher order (4th – 6th) streams as well as rivers. It is estimated that there are a total of 33720 miles of intermittent streams, 57,290 miles of perennial streams, and 4,170 miles of artificial channels and “other” segments in this coal region. A more detailed discussion about the general habitat features of these different types of streams is presented in Appendix 3.12-B. 3.12.1.3.1.2 Energy Flow/Primary Production

Energy flow in streams is controlled by allochthonous and to a lesser extent, autochthonous sources. Allochthonous organic materials (e.g. litter fall and lateral movement of leaves and wood) have been found to be the predominant energy source in high-gradient streams of the southern Appalachians; however, stream width affects the amount of input. Woody debris comprises about 25% to 50% of total input. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is also another potential energy source and may include groundwater inputs, leaching from detritus stored in the streambed, and dissolved exudates from biota (Wallace et al., 1992).
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Primary production rates in high-gradient Appalachian streams have been shown to vary with stream order, season, degree of shading, nutrients, and water hardness (Wallace et al., 1992). Plant and algal communities of high-gradient streams in the Appalachian Basin are reduced compared to low-gradient streams and lentic systems as these communities are typically densely shaded and subject to high current velocities (Wallace et al., 1992). As a result, plant and algal communities occurring along high-gradient streams contain flora uniquely adapted to survive in this type of environment (Wallace et al., 1992), and many species are considered to be endemic to this region (Patrick, 1948). Hornleaf riverweed (Podostemum ceratophyllum), is an example of a vascular plant found along high-gradient streams (Wallace et al., 1992), and is broadly distributed in the southern Appalachian Mountains (Meijer, 1975). Water willow (Justicia americana), another important vascular plant found in southeastern streams, is the dominant emergent plant of the New River, contributing 12% of the aquatic macrophyte biomass (Hill, 1981). Mosses and liverworts are among dominant flora in turbulent flows. Four bryophytes dominate Appalachian streams to include fontinalis moss (Fontinalis dalecarlica), streamside hygroamblystegium moss (Hygroamblystegium fluviatile), Lescur’s platylomella moss (Sciaromium lescurii), and Chokai marimo (Scapania undulate) (Gilme, 1968). Endemic and unique species of algae are common to the high-gradient streams of the southern Appalachians. Like bryophytes, these algae are also attached to stable substrates. Dominant algal flora of the high-gradient streams of the southeast United States include filamentous red algae, filamentous green algae, and diatoms (Wallace et al., 1992), Camburn and Lowe (1978) described a diatom from high-gradient streams in the Great Smokies (Achnanthes subrostrata var. appalachiana) which comprised as much as 73% of the algal community of high-gradient streams. Diatoms are a major group of algae, and are one of the most common types of phytoplankton. Diatoms have been used as indicators of stream condition and water quality, for parameters such as pH, trophic status, metal concentrations, and other environmental conditions especially in lakes. Diatoms can also be used as quantitative indicators of ecological conditions in lotic systems (Pan et al., 1996). 3.12.1.3.1.3 Invertebrates

Appalachian headwater streams support an abundant and diverse epibenthic fauna although they are subject to seasonal flow and occasionally to large storm events (Angradi et al., 2001). Typical benthic macroinvertebrates found in headwater streams in the Appalachian coal region include mayflies (Ephemeroptera), stoneflies (Plecoptera), caddisflies (Trichoptera), dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata), beetles (Coleoptera), dobsonflies and alderflies (Megaloptera), true bugs (Hemiptera), springtails (Collembola), and true flies (Diptera) (USEPA, 2003). Other macroinvertebrates that have been collected include crayfish (Decapoda), isopods (Isopoda), worms (Oligochaeta and Annelida) and snails (Gastropoda) (USEPA, 2003). Many streams in the central Appalachian region harbor a diverse and unique array of invertebrates, and this has been attributed to the unique geological, climatological and hydrological features of this region. A number of the unique species are known from only one or two isolated locations in the Appalachians. In the southern Appalachian Mountains, macroinvertebrates in the Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera, and Tricoptera (EPT) taxonomic groups have been found to be rich
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in species, including many endemic species and species considered to be rare (USEPA, 2003). The proportion of the macroinvertebrate assemblage in EPT are used as an indicator of stream condition, with greater numbers EPT expected in less impacted streams (Fairfax County, 2003); other biological indices which are used to describe stream condition in the states of the Appalachian Basin coal region are summarized in Appendix 3.12-A. There are few differences between the numbers of invertebrate taxa in permanent streams versus those found in intermittent stream reaches in several northern Alabama streams (Feminella, 1996); similar trends have been observed for ephemeral and intermittent streams in the Appalachian region (Stout and Wallace, 2003). This suggests that there is sufficient water present in the headwaters for long-lived taxa with multi-year life cycles to complete their juvenile development prior to reaching the aerial adult stage. During periods of no visible stream flow, interstitial water flows through the material below the steam. This special hydrology creates a unique habitat, called the hyporheic zone. Specially-adapted macroinvertebrates are able to continue their life cycles by burrowing into the hyporheic zone, especially in times of drought. Other macroinvertebrates live completely within the hyporheic zone (see Appendix 3.12-B for further discussion of the biota of the hyporheic zone). A common and important inhabitant of streams throughout the eastern United States includes the benthic forager, crayfish (Cambarus bartonii, Cambaridae) (Seiler and Turner, 2004). There are about 390 native crayfish species (primarily family Cambaridae) in North America, with most restricted to eastern North America (Lodge et al., 2000). Studies of Appalachian headwater streams show that C. bartonii usually accounts for the majority of benthic macroinvertebrate biomass (Seiler and Turner, 2004). Various studies also show that crayfish are important in that they can regulate periphyton standing crops, are often a large portion of fish diets, and are a component in the processing of leaf litter (Seiler and Turner, 2004). Based on this important role that crayfish play in the stream food web, any disturbance to crayfish abundance may have a negative impact on the stream ecosystem (Seiler and Turner, 2004). Many crayfish species have small ranges in the southeastern U.S. which makes them vulnerable, primarily to non-native crayfish species. As documented in a report by Lodge et al. (2000), nonnative crayfish species have negatively impacted North American lake and stream ecosystems and fisheries, and have led to the extirpation of many populations of native crayfishes. As shown in this report, the impacts of several species of introduced crayfishes have been documented. These impacts include: reduction of the abundance of macrophytes by more than 80%; reduction in the abundance of algae through direct consumption/destruction of macrophytes on which some algae grow; reduction in the abundance of some macroinvertebrates (particularly snails); and the reduction in the abundance of native crayfishes, often to the point of local extirpation. Lodge et al. (2000) also listed other studies showing the impacts of non-native crawfish species on amphibians and fishes. The mechanisms by which native crayfishes are impacted include competition, predation, and reproductive interference. The central and southern portions of the Appalachian region also contain substantial freshwater mussel (Bivalvia: Unionoidae) populations. Approximately 70% of the approximately 300 North American mussel taxa are endangered, threatened, or locally at risk (Strayer et al., 2004). Declines in mussel populations have resulted from factors such as impoundments, exotic species,
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and degraded water quality (Lydeard et al., 2004). As discussed in Section 3.14, there are numerous federally-listed mussel species within the Appalachian basin including the Cumberland elktoe (Alasmidonta atropurpurea), snuffbox (Epioblasma triquetra), sheepnose (Plethobasus cyphyus), and rabbitsfoot (Quadrula cylindrica cylindrica). Freshwater mussel communities are important components of food webs; they are omnivores that feed across trophic levels on bacteria, algae, detritus, and zooplankton (Vaughn et al., 2008). Mussel communities link and influence multiple trophic levels, and effect nutrient translocation and cycling depending on their abundance, species composition, and environmental conditions (Vaughn et al., 2008). The dispersal ability of mussels is limited by their reproductive cycle. The larval stage (called the glochidium) of mussels is an obligate parasite on the gills or fins of host fishes, thus mussel dispersal is linked to the mobility of the host fishes. Consequently, the presence and abundant of certain host fishes is an important component of the life cycle of freshwater mussels. A study conducted by Haag and Warren (1998) (in Vaughn et al., 2008) indicated that patterns of mussel community variation were correlated with patterns of fish community variation, but not with habitat. Non-native mussel species introduced and spread within the southeastern U.S. has been adversarial to native mollusk assemblages (Neves et al., 1997). A number of non-native mollusk species are found in southern waters; however, at this time here is insufficient evidence showing that there have been detrimental impacts to native species (Neves et al., 1997). The biggest current and future concern for southeastern mollusk populations is from the non-native zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) as this species has made its way up the Tennessee River to Knoxville, Tennessee (Neves et al., 1997). 3.12.1.3.1.4 Vertebrates

Salamanders are a significant component of high-gradient stream communities in the Appalachians. Many types of amphibians are unique to the Appalachian Mountain region. Typically, salamanders are the invertebrate predators that occupy small, high-gradient headwater streams while fish occur farther downstream. Predation by fish is believed to restrict salamanders to smaller streams or the banks of large streams (Wallace et al., 1992). The most common aquatic salamanders in the Appalachian region include those of the genus Desmognathus, with two-lined salamanders (Eurycea bislineata) and shovel-nosed salamanders (Leurognathus marmoratus) also being common (Wallace et al., 1992). Aquatic salamanders may spend a portion of their life cycle within adjacent terrestrial habitats. According to a study conducted along streamside forests in western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee (Petranka and Smith, 2005), the overall abundance of aquatic-breeders (primarily Desmognathus spp.) within adjacent terrestrial habitat [36 to 38 meters (±118 to 125 feet) from aquatic habitat] declined with elevation. Further, this study found that the number of aquatic breeders were greatest within eight meters of aquatic habitats (49% of total terrestrial catch of aquatic-breeders), particularly at low elevation sites. The terrestrial zone provided core habitat to six semi-aquatic species (Desmognathus spp., Gyrinophilus porphyriticus, and Eurycea wilderae) that were broadly distributed throughout the study plots, and acted as an aquatic buffer for four highly aquatic species (Desmognathus spp.) (Petranka and Smith, 2005).
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Based on studies conducted by the West Virginia Division of Natural Resources (WVDNR, 2003), there are 87 species of amphibians and reptiles in West Virginia. These species include salamanders (mole, dusky, woodland, four-toed, green, spring, red, mud, and brook) as well as newts, hellbenders, and mudpuppies, which can frequently be found near aquatic habitat (WVDNR, 2003). Less common salamanders in the Appalachian region include Blue Ridge two-lined salamander (Eurycea wilderae) and black-bellied salamander (Desmognathus quadramnculatus). Skinks (a lizard species); toads (cricket, chorus, true, leopard, and pickerel); tree frogs; turtles (snapping, spotted, map, musk, mud, and painted); and snakes (water, crayfish, brown, garter, ribbon, and kingsnake) are all associated with aquatic habitats (WVDNR, 2003). Not all, but many species are also found in similar habitats in neighboring regions of Kentucky, Tennessee, Ohio, and Virginia (Kentucky Department of Fish and Wildlife Resources [KDFWR], 2010b; Ohio Department of Fish and Wildlife [ODFW], 2010; Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency [TWRA], 2010; Virginia Department of Game and Inland Fisheries [VDGIF], 2010). For instance, common amphibian species found in the Northern Cumberland Plateau section (eastern Tennessee and Kentucky) include the green salamander (Aneides aeneus), Kentucky spring salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus), Black Mountain salamander (Desmognathus welteri), seal salamander (Desmognathus monticola), slimy salamander (Plethodon glutinosus), spotted salamander (Ambystoma maculatum), American toad (Bufo americanus), mountain chorus frog (Pseudacris brachyphona), green frog (Rana clamitans), pickerel frog (Rana palustris), and wood frog (Rana sylvatica) (OSM, 2008). The fish assemblages of the central Appalachian area tend to contain a relatively large number of endemic and unique species (USEPA, 2003). In the southern Appalachian Mountains south of the Roanoke River and New River, there are about 350 fish species, 64 of which are considered imperiled (Walsh et al., 1995). Both fish and mollusks exhibit high degrees of endemism in the southeast, which is a major contributing factor to species endangerment (Dobson et al., 1997; Warren and Burr, 1994). Fishes common to the streams in the ecological provinces of the Appalachian Basin coal region are summarized in Table 3.12-4. Table 3.12-4 Province Common Fishes in the Appalachian Basin Section Common Fish Cold and warm water fishes, including brown trout (Salmo trutta), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Atlantic salmon, lake trout, black bass (smallmouth and largemouth, Micropterus spp.), walleye (Sander vitreus), yellow perch (Perca flavescens), and northern pike (Esox lucius) Smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu), walleye, and sauger (Stizostedion canadense)

Northeastern Mixed Forest

Northern Glaciated Allegheny Plateau

Northern Unglaciated Allegheny Plateau

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Province

Section

Eastern Broadleaf Forest

Western Glaciated Allegheny Plateau

Southern Unglaciated Allegheny Plateau

Eastern Broadleaf Forest (continued)

Central Ridge and Valley

Northern Ridge and Valley Central Appalachian Broadleaf Forest – Coniferous Forest – Meadow

Allegheny Mountains Northern Cumberland Mountains

Southeastern Mixed Forest

Southern Cumberland Plateau

Common Fish Common shiner (Notropis cornutus), mottled sculpin (Cottus bairdii), brook stickleback (Culaea inconstans), horneyhead chub (Nocomis biguttatus), western lake chubsucker (Erimyzon sucetta), largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), and crappie (Pomoxis spp.) Black basses (Micropterus spp.), sunfish (Family Centrarchidae), sauger, catfish (Order Siluriformes), hybrid saugeye (Sander vitreus x Sander canadense), striped bass (Morone saxatilis), Southern redbelly dace (Phoxinus erythrogaster), creek chub (Semotilus atromaculatus), barred fantail darter (Etheostoma flabellare), greenside darter (Etheostoma blennioides) largemouth bass, bluegill, channel catfish, crappie, and numerous mussel populations Brown trout, brook trout, rainbow trout, smallmouth bass, spotted bass, rock bass (Ambloplites rupestris), sunfish (Lepomis spp.), crappie (Pomoxis spp.), walleye, muskellunge (Esox masquinongy), freshwater drum (Aplodinotus grunniens), longnose gar (Lepisosteus osseus), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), and flathead catfish (Pylodictis olivaris) Smallmouth bass, largemouth bass, striped bass, rock bass, walleye, muskellunge, crappie, bluegill, carp (family Cyprinidae), and flathead and channel catfish Rainbow, brook, and brown trout, and smallmouth bass, bluegill, walleye, and muskellunge fish Smallmouth bass, largemouth bass, striped bass, rock bass, walleye, muskellunge, and bluegill Rainbow trout, largemouth bass, smallmouth bass, spotted bass, crappie, sauger, walleye, and yellow perch

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Province

Section

Common Fish Spotted bass, largemouth bass, redeye bass (Micropterus coosae), bluegill, red-eared sunfish (Lepomis microlophus), redbreast sunfish (Lepomis auritus), crappie, white bass (Morone chrysops), striped bass, freshwater drum, and longnose gar

Southern Ridge and Valley and Coastal Plains-Middle

The diversity and distribution of fishes in West Virginia is related to drainage divides (Stauffer and Ferreri, 2002). Kanawha Falls is the primary physical barrier that divides the distinct fish fauna of the New River System from that of the Upper Ohio River system (Hocutt et al., 1986). The Kanawha/New River system above the Kanawha Falls has a unique fauna with up to 45 native species, including eight endemic species (Messinger and Chambers, 2001). Fish species found in the upper Kanawha/New River system include bigmouth chub (Nocomis platyrhynchus), New River shiner (Notropis scabriceps), Kanawha minnow (Phenacobius teretulus), candy darter (Etheostoma osburni), Kanawha darter (Etheostoma kanawhae), and Appalachia darter (Percina gymnocephala), with all but the Kanawha darter occurring in West Virginia (Stauffer and Ferreri, 2002). Common fish on the Ohio River and lower portions of its tributaries include black bass, sunfish, sauger, and catfish, the hybrid saugeye, and striped bass (McNab and Avers, 1994; OSM, 2008). Many high-altitude (headwater) streams are cold and support trout populations where these streams are draining areas larger than 100 square miles (Messinger and Chambers, 2001). Fish species found in headwater streams are typically representative of cold water species and primarily consume invertebrates (Vannote et al., 1980). Fish species collected in headwaters of West Virginia include rainbow trout, brown trout, brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), blacknose dace (Rhinichthys atratulus), creek chub (Semotilus atromaculatus), and slimy sculpin (Cottus cognatus) (Stauffer and Ferreri, 2002). In general, common fish species found in smaller streams include southern redbelly dace, creek chub, barred fantail darter, and greenside darter, whereas largemouth bass, bluegill, channel catfish, and crappie are found in the large, man-made reservoirs (McNab and Avers, 1994; OSM, 2008). Brook trout, a native salmonid species of streams in the southern Appalachian Mountains, is found mainly in small headwater streams. The distribution of brook trout is thought to be influenced by the presence of the non-native rainbow trout, as documented in the in Great Smoky Mountains National Park (Larson et al. 1995). The competitive advantage of rainbow trout over brook trout was evident when rainbow trout were removed and the abundance and biomass of brook trout populations rebounded (Moore et al. 1983 in Larson et al. 1995). A study conducted by Ward et al. (2002) within the Southern Unglaciated Allegheny Plateau section and extending southward into the Northern Ridge and Valley section, collected thirteen fish species of six families. The most abundant fish species collected were of the Cyprinidae. According to another study conducted in the Southern Unglaciated Allegheny Plateau section
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(Clear Fork or Spruce Laurel Fork), other fish commonly collected include mottled sculpin (Cottus bairdii), bluebreast darter (Etheostoma camurum), river carpsucker (Carpoides carpio), blacknose dace, and longnose dace (Rhinichthys cataractae) (Messinger and Chambers, 2001). Studies conducted in central Appalachian drainages of eastern Kentucky have found approximately 277 native freshwater fish species distributed among 22 families with minnows, suckers, catfishes, sunfishes, and perches being the most predominant (USEPA, 1983). A diverse fish assemblage is found in eastern Kentucky due to the lack of modifications, combined with numerous geological, climatic, and hydrological events (USEPA, 1983). Uncommon fish species found in the Northern Cumberland Plateau section (Tennessee and Kentucky) include the paddlefish (Polyodon spathula), sturgeon (family Acipenseridae), eastern sand darter (Ammocrypta pellucida), spotted darter (Etheostoma maculatum), Tippecanoe darter (Etheostoma tippecanoe), and the redside dace (Clinostomus elongatus) (OSM, 2008). Larger populations of redside dace are found within a small range in Kentucky (OSM, 2008). 3.12.1.3.2 Lentic Systems (Ponds, Lakes and Reservoirs) 3.12.1.3.2.1 Habitat The following discussion on lentic systems in the Appalachian basin is divided into discussions on small ponds/impoundments and reservoirs. Natural lakes are largely absent in the Appalachian coal region. Small ponds/impoundments are common in the southeastern portion of the U.S., and most are formed by damming a small stream (Wallace et al., 1992). 3.12.1.3.2.2 Energy Flow/Primary Production

Submersed macrophytes (macroscopic algae and aquatic vascular plants), periphyton (attached algae), and phytoplankton (suspended algae) communities are closely linked in small impoundments (Wallace et al., 1992). In the Appalachian region, small lentic systems tend to be highly productive, eutrophic systems although some small ponds and impoundments may be oligotrophic where there are low concentrations of plant nutrients and low productivity (Wallace et al., 1992). The primary source of primary production in these smaller lentic systems is submergent or emergent vegetation (Menzel and Cooper, 1992). Floating macrophytes, such as duckweed (Lemna spp.), spatterdock (Nuphar spp.), and yellow lotus (Nelumbo spp.), are widely distributed in the southeastern U.S. (Wallace et al., 1992). If floating macrophytes cover an entire surface area of a pond, photosynthesis will be greatly reduced in the water column thus resulting in decreased dissolved oxygen concentrations which may inhibit fish populations (Wallace et al., 1992). Fungi and bacteria are the primary decomposers of organic matter in small impoundments (Wallace et al., 1992). Reservoirs in the southeastern U.S. have an ecological structure and function of biological communities that are linked to water residence time. As with other smaller impoundment types, phytoplankton, periphyton, and macrophytes supply most of the organic matter to the food web. Due to fluctuating water levels, phytoplankton production dominates most impoundments; however, rooted and floating macrophytes can dominate where water levels are stables in a reservoir. Reservoirs in the Appalachian region are generally nutrient rich and productive. Nutrient loads to downstream aquatic systems are higher than that in most natural lakes.
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3.12.1.3.2.3

Invertebrates

Common invertebrate species found in Appalachian ponds include rotifers, protozoans, crustaceans (Cladocera and Copepoda). Within the benthos of most ponds and reservoirs in the southeastern U.S., larvae of true midges (Diptera: Chironomidae) and oligochaete worms are the dominant macroinvertebrates (Diggins and Thorpe, 1985). 3.12.1.3.2.4 Vertebrates

Fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals are the main groups of vertebrates found in and associated with (e.g. breeding and feeding activities) ponds and reservoirs in the Appalachian basin during a portion of their life cycle (Wallace et al., 1992). Fish populations are mainly comprised of forage fishes including shads and silversides in reservoirs, and sunfishes in ponds (Noble, 1981). The dominant predators in ponds are typically largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides); however, fish generally will ignore smaller organisms for larger prey (Wallace et al., 1992).

3.12.2 Colorado Plateau Coal Region
3.12.2.1 General Ecological Setting The Colorado Plateau coal region encompasses coal-bearing counties in Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah (Figure 3.12-3). The surface area of this coal region is approximately 42,436 square miles.

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Figure 3.12-3

USFS Provinces within the Colorado Plateau Coal Region

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Table 3.12-5 lists the ecological provinces located in this coal region and their estimated size. Table 3.12-5: USFS Provinces Associated with the Colorado Plateau Coal Region Ecological Province Arizona-New Mexico Mountains SemiDesert - Open Woodland - Coniferous Forest - Alpine Meadow Colorado Plateau Semi-Desert Intermountain Semi-Desert Intermountain Semi-Desert and Desert Nevada-Utah Mountains Semi-Desert Coniferous Forest - Alpine Meadow Southern Rocky Mountain Steppe - Open Woodland - Coniferous Forest - Alpine Meadow Area of Coal Region in Province (sq mi) 111 11,092 5 866 4,927 2,279

The general province descriptions provided below for the ecological provinces distributed within the Colorado Plateau Coal Region come from McNab (2007), Cleland et al (1997), and USDAUSFS (1993). 3.12.2.1.1 Arizona-New Mexico Mountains Semi-Desert-Open Woodland-Coniferous Forest-Alpine Meadow Province This area consists mostly of steep foothills and mountains, but includes some deeply dissected high plateaus. Elevations range from 4,500 to 10,000 feet, with some mountain peaks reaching as high as 12,600 feet. This province has a cool to cold climate with most precipitation occurring during late summer (as thunderstorms) and early winter. Vegetation varies by zones of altitude and, from low to high elevations, ranges from herbaceous to shrubland, to woodland, to forest (McNab et al, 2007). The Arizona-New Mexico Mountains Semi-Desert-Open WoodlandConiferous Forest-Alpine Meadow province is approximately 34,439 square miles. The Colorado Plateau coal region encompasses only a small amount of this province. This province has a cool to cold climate with most precipitation occurring during late summer (as thunderstorms) and early winter (Bailey, 1995). Several large streams are perennial in this province. Much of the water is stored in reservoirs, small impoundments, and ponds (McNab and Avers, 1994). Ground water is limited and usually occurs at great depths. This province contains most of the headwaters of the Rio Grande and Pecos Valley basins (McNab and Avers, 1994).

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3.12.2.1.2 Colorado Plateau Semi-Desert Province This province consists of tablelands with moderate to considerable relief in Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah. Elevations of the plateau top range from 5,000 to 7,000 feet, with local relief ranging from 500 to more than 3,000 feet. Stream valleys are narrow and widely spaced. The Colorado River, which crosses the northern part of the province, is the region’s only large stream. Many other streams flow year-round, but the volume of water fluctuates considerably (McNab and Avers, 1994). Vegetation varies by altitude and varies from herbaceous and dwarfshrubland low elevation, shrubland and woodland at moderate elevation, to needleleaf forest at upper elevations (McNab et al, 2007). The Colorado Plateau Semi-Desert province is approximately 82,400 square miles. The Colorado Plateau coal region encompasses one eighth of the province. Water is scarce in the Colorado Plateau Semi-Desert Province. The areas of the coal region that encompass portions of this province are drained by the Colorado River and its tributaries (Bailey, 1995). Streams are narrow and located in deep, widely spaced valleys. The Colorado River, which crosses the northern part of the province in Arizona to Utah, is the province’s only large perennial stream. Many other streams flow year-round, but the volume of water fluctuates considerably. Ground water supplies are deep and limited. Smaller lakes, impoundments, and reservoirs are present; Lake Powell is the largest. This province has a modified continental climate of cold winters and summers with rains from thunderstorms. More than half of precipitation occurs during winter; seasonal differences in rainfall result in seasonal drying in some streams (Bailey, 1995). 3.12.2.1.3 Intermountain Semi-Desert and Desert Province This province has a climate of hot summers and cool to cold winters. Most of the precipitation in this province occurs as snow. Vegetation consists of shrubland on plains; woodlands are on steeper slopes (McNab et al, 2007). The Intermountain Semidesert and Desert province is approximately 112,275 square miles. The Colorado Plateau coal region encompasses only a tiny fraction of the province. Water is scarce in this province. The lands of the province are eroded by the Colorado River and its tributaries (McNab and Avers, 1994). Few lakes and reservoirs occur, and the area is drained by the Colorado and Green Rivers and their tributaries (McNab and Avers, 1994). A small portion of Lake Powell occurs in Northern Canyonlands in the province. In the Uinta Basin in northeast Utah, some streams and rivers bring water into the surrounding areas from adjoining mountains (McNab and Avers, 1994). Major rivers that flow through the Uinta Basin are the Green, Duchesne, Strawberry, and smaller creeks that drain into the Green River (McNab and Avers, 1994). Few lakes and reservoirs occur in the Uinta Basin; examples are the Strawberry reservoir, Starvation reservoir, and Steinaker reservoir (McNab and Avers, 1994). 3.12.2.1.4 Intermountain Semi-Desert Province This province covers the plains and tablelands of the Columbia-Snake river Plateaus and Wyoming Basin. The plateaus include most of the Northwest’s lava fields. The Wyoming Basin consists of plains at elevations of 6,000 to 8,000 feet broken by isolated hills and low mountains. Sloping alluvial fans at the edges of the basins merge into flat plains in the center. Badlands are
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typical of the dissected areas along the region’s outer edges (McNab and Avers, 1994). This province has a semiarid, cold continental climate with warm to hot, dry summers and cold, dry winters with little or no precipitation during summer or fall. Topography consists of plains and plateaus with isolated small mountain ranges. Vegetation is herbaceous and dwarf-shrubland on plains, which changes to shrubland and woodland on higher slopes (McNab et al, 2007). The Intermountain Semidesert Province is approximately 158853square miles. The Colorado Plateau coal region encompasses only a tiny fraction of this province. In northeast Utah, there is a low to moderate frequency of rapidly flowing rivers and streams. Streams generally flow into the Great Basin or Snake River drainage. Few lakes and wet meadows are associated with higher areas above 5,000 ft (1,500 m). Large lakes include Bear Lake, Gray's Lake, Palisades Reservoir, and Blackfoot Reservoir (McNab and Avers, 1994). The portions of the Intermountain Semi-Desert province that lie northwest Colorado are part of the Green River basin ecological subregion (McNab et al., 2005). Water is scarce in the Green River Basin, but some major rivers (e.g. Green and Lower Snake rivers) and small streams flow through here. Generally, ground water is meager or lacking in most areas, but it is abundant in the fill in some valleys (McNab and Avers, 1994). Part of the Flaming Gorge Reservoir is also found in this area. 3.12.2.1.5 Nevada-Utah Mountains-Semi-Desert-Coniferous Forest-Alpine Meadow Province This province covers the highest areas of the Great Basin and Colorado Plateau, including valleys that are 5,000 feet in elevation. Streams are rare and few are perennial. Many linear mountain ranges rise steeply from the semiarid plains, reaching altitudes up to 13,000 feet. This province has a climate characterized by long, cold winters and warm, dry summers. Vegetation is stratified by altitude ranging from herbaceous and dwarf-shrubland on plateaus to woodlands at middle slopes and needleleaf evergreen forests on higher mountain slopes (McNab et al, 2007). Most precipitation occurs as winter snow with little during summer, although occasional thunderstorms may occur. Although some valleys are closed, none contain perennial lakes. This province is approximately 49,134 square miles. The Colorado Plateau coal region encompasses approximately 10% of this province. Generally, streams in this province are rare and few are perennial except in the southern Utah High Plateau Section. In the Tavaput Plateau Section of province, which is found in easterncentral Utah and in western Colorado, water is scarce and is confined to the Green and White rivers (McNab and Avers, 1994). Smaller drainages such as Timber, Sowards, and Indian Canyon deliver water to the Green River system after flowing into the Strawberry River in the Uinta Basin (McNab and Avers, 1994). There are few lakes and reservoirs in the Tavaput Plateau Section, and many water developments have been put on public lands to distribute to livestock and to provide water for wildlife (McNab and Avers, 1994). In the areas of the province found in south-central Utah, streams, lakes, and ground water supply adequate water for grazing and forest growth (McNab and Avers, 1994). Perennial streams in southern Utah are more common and drain into the Sevier, Virgin, or Colorado Rivers. Some of the major lakes are larger impoundments of the higher order perennial streams: Piute Reservoir, Panguitch Lake, Scofield
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Reservoir, Joes Valley Reservoir, Fish Lake, and Otter Creek Reservoir (McNab and Avers, 1994). 3.12.2.1.6 Southern Rocky Mountain Steppe-Open Woodland-Coniferous Forest-Alpine Meadow Province The Rocky Mountains are rugged glaciated mountains as high as 14,000 feet. Local relief is between 3,000 feet and 7,000 feet (McNab and Avers, 1994). The climate of this ecoregion is modified continental with short, warm summers and long, cold winters. Vegetation is mainly evergreen, needleleaf forest that varies in composition with altitude and aspect (McNab et al, 2007). This province is approximately 93,852 square miles. The Colorado Plateau coal region encompasses a small portion of this province. The topography is rugged terrain consisting of high mountains, lightly weathered slopes, etched with deep valleys; the Rio Grande, Animas, Gunnison, and San Miguel Rivers flow through here (McNab and Avers, 1994). In northern New Mexico, and southwest Colorado, the landscape becomes steeply crested with mountains that are dissected with narrow stream valleys (McNab et al., 2005). Here water from streams and lakes is abundant, and ground water is plentiful. Snowfields exist on upper slopes and crests which provide a source of water to the streams into the summer months. Yampa, White, Colorado, Eagle, Arkansas, Taylor, Gunnison, Crystal, Roaring Fork, and Frying Pan are the larger perennial streams that occur in these areas. In the western areas of Colorado within this province, the topography becomes dominated by flattopped mountains that are dissected by narrow stream valleys (McNab et al., 2005). Water from streams and lakes is abundant in this province and ground water is also plentiful (McNab and Avers, 1994). 3.12.2.2 Terrestrial Resources for Colorado Plateau The Colorado Plateau Basin includes a broad area of the southwestern United States that extends across portions of Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. The fauna that occur in the arid and semi-arid areas of the Colorado Plateau coal region have adapted to the harsh climatic conditions. The composition of animal communities in and surrounding the lotic systems of this region are influenced by the vegetative communities that occur. Microclimates in and around the streams in this coal region support the greatest concentrations of wildlife, providing the primary habitat, predator protection, breeding and nesting sites, shade, movement corridors, migration stopover sites, and food sources (Levick et al., 2008). Some physical features of wildlife habitat along ephemeral and intermittent streams include the deposits of river material (sediment and debris), the exposure of rock and subsurface soil layers by erosion, the provision of shade through topographic relief, the creation of microclimatic zones, and the sequestration of moisture and nutrients in alluvium. River bank material provides shelter for numerous wildlife species including reptiles, amphibians, birds, mammals and invertebrates in the arid Southwest. Specifically, dry wash embankments can contain numerous small caves and crevices that provide critical shelters from predators and the harsh environmental conditions for a variety of species such as the desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) (Van Devender, 2002; Levick et al., 2008).
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In Utah, most of the coal region is associated with the Intermountain Semidesert and Desert Province and the associated Nevada-Utah Mountains Semidesert-Coniferous Forest-Alpine Meadow Province. Cover types include desert shrub, pinyon-juniper, sagebrush, and chaparralmountain shrub desert grasslands, ponderosa pine western hardwoods, and Douglas-fir cover types. Along its northern edge in Utah and extending across Colorado and south into New Mexico, the coal region is located within the Southern Rocky Mountain Steppe-Open Woodland-Coniferous Forest-Alpine Meadow Province. This area is characterized by following cover types lodgepole pine, fir-spruce, sagebrush, alpine tundra chaparral-mountain shrub, ponderosa pine, pinyonjuniper cover types. In the four corners area at the intersection of Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico, the coal region is within the Colorado Plateau Semidesert Province. This area is characterized by sagebrush, pinyon-juniper, ponderosa pine, southwestern shrub-steppe, desert grasslands, and desert shrub cover types. South of the Four Corners area in central-eastern Arizona and into central New Mexico, the coal region is located within the Arizona-New Mexico Mountains Semidesert-Open WoodlandConiferous Forest-Alpine Meadow Province. Ecoregion sections are characterized by ponderosa pine, pinyon-juniper, desert grasslands and southwestern shrub-steppe cover types. 3.12.2.2.1 Pinyon-Juniper Cover Type Vegetation. The name “pygmy forest” characterizes the pinyon pine and juniper woodlands of this cover type. The trees occur as dense to open woodland and savanna woodland; trees adopt a bush growth form. Herbage production is determined to a large extent by the amount of tree canopy. Fauna. The major mammalian influents in the pinyon-juniper cover type are mule deer, mountain lion, coyote, and bobcat. Elk are locally important. The less important influents include the wood rat, white-footed mouse, cliff chipmunk, jackrabbit, cottontail, rock squirrel, porcupine, and gray fox. The ring-tailed cat and spotted skunk occur rarely. The most abundant resident birds in the pinyon-juniper cover type are the gray titmouse, Woodhouse’s jay, western red-tailed hawk, golden eagle, red-shafted flicker, pinyon jay, leadcolored bush tit, and rock wren. Summer residents include the western chipping sparrow, night hawk, black-throated gray warbler, northern cliff swallow, western lark sparrow, Rocky Mountain grosbeak, desert sparrow, and western mourning dove. The common winter residents are the pink-sided junco, Shufeldt’s junco, gray-headed junco, red-backed junco Rocky Mountain nuthatch, mountain bluebird, western robin, and long-crested jay. Turkeys are locally abundant during the winter. Among the common reptiles are the horned lizard, sagebrush swift, collared lizard, and Great Basin rattlesnake.

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3.12.2.2.2 Desert Grasslands Cover Type Vegetation. The grass life form predominates on these plateaus at intermediate elevations, and shrub life forms are dominant at higher and lower elevations. In transition zones, shrubs give way to galleta to black grama to blue grama. Consociations of these species occur, but almost pure stands are the rule. Tobosa replaces galleta in the southern extensions in Texas of this cover type, and three-awn becomes the dominant in the northern extensions in Utah. In its northern extensions, this cover type is more open grassland with low shrubs. Fauna. Pronghorn, or antelope, are the primary larger mammals in the desert grasslands cover type. Mule deer also occur. The coyote and bobcat are among the chief animal predators. They prey on blacktailed jackrabbits, cottontails, wood rats, and a large number of small rodent species, such as the kangaroo rat and the deer mouse. Scaled quail range into the grasslands, especially where brush has made an invasion. Among the smaller birds of the cover type are the horned lark, several sparrows, the loggerhead shrike, and nighthawks. Avian predators include the golden eagle, great horned owl, and various hawks. 3.12.2.2.3 Ponderosa Pine Cover Type Vegetation. By definition, ponderosa pine forest is 50 percent or more of one of these pines: ponderosa pine, Jeffrey pine, sugar pine, limber pine, Arizona ponderosa pine, Apache pine, or Chihuahua pine. The exceptions are those situations where western white pine or sugar pine comprises 20 percent or more of the stand; then these species control the name of the forest. This cover type is idealized as open and park-like, with an excellent ground cover of grasses, sedges, and forbs or with an understory of shrubs of low to medium height. Fauna. In the ponderosa pine cover type, the major mammalian influents are the Rocky Mountain elk, mule deer, mountain lion, and coyote. Animals of less importance include the bushy-tailed wood rat, white-footed mouse, bobcat, rock squirrel, cottontail, porcupine, mantled ground squirrel, Kaibab squirrel, and chipmunks. The most abundant and important resident birds in the ponderosa pine cover type include the pygmy nuthatch, long-crested jay, sharpshinned hawk, Rocky Mountain nuthatch, mountain chickadee, Cassin’s purple finch, redshafted flicker, red-backed junco, western goshawk, and western red-tailed hawk. Birds that are common during the summer include the chestnut-backed bluebird, Audubon’s warbler, Natalie’s sapsucker, western chipping sparrow, horned owl, and band-tailed pigeon. 3.12.2.2.4 Sagebrush Cover Type Vegetation. The sagebrush cover type is characterized by shrubs, principally of the genus Artemisia, which are usually 1–7 feet high. In some situations, other shrubs are part of the vegetation. In other places, grasses such as those of the genera Agropyron, Festuca, Poa, and Bromus, as well as broadleaved herbs, are found in the understory. Fauna. Pronghorn, or antelope, use parts of this cover type as rangeland throughout the year, whereas mule deer prefer to use sagebrush rangeland only during the winter. The Utah prairie dog is an endangered species of this cover type. Other wild mammals that are principal
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inhabitants of this cover type are the Great Basin coyote, black-tailed jackrabbit, pygmy cottontail, Ord’s kangaroo rat, and Great Basin kangaroo rat. Bird populations are low during the breeding season, averaging only about 25 pairs per 100 acres. The major influent birds include the marsh hawk, red-tailed hawk, Swainson’s hawk, golden eagle, bald eagle, Cooper’s hawk, prairie falcon, burrowing owl, and long-eared owl. The sage grouse and chukar are important game birds. More than 50 additional species of birds nest within the cover type. 3.12.2.2.5 Western Hardwoods Cover Type Vegetation. This cover type is characterized by forests in which 50 percent or more of the stand is hardwood species, except where western white pine, sugar pine, or redwood comprises 20 percent or more of the stand (in such cases the cover type is classified as western white pine or redwood). The vegetation is a forest of low to medium tall, broadleaved deciduous or evergreen trees, sometimes with an admixture of low to medium tall needle-leaved evergreens, often with an understory of grass and shrubs. Digger pine, coast live oak, canyon live oak, blue oak, valley oak, and interior live oak. The widely scattered Rocky Mountain and Plains States “hardwood” portion of the cover type consists primarily of quaking aspen stands with an understory of grasses, forbs, and shrubs. In many places where the aspen stands are inclusions within areas of sagebrush or conifers, they are important sources of food and cover for wildlife. Cottonwood becomes dominant on plains, more or less replacing aspen. Fauna. The now-extinct California grizzly was once numerous. An occasional black bear comes down from forests at higher elevations. Mountain lions are no longer numerous; the largest numerous predatory animals are the coyote and the bobcat. Avian predators include golden eagles and red-tailed and other hawks. California quail are often abundant at lower elevations, and mountain quail winter at the higher elevations. Nesting bird populations per acre were not indicated. The striped skunk is widespread. Among the more common small mammals are the Beechy ground squirrel, kangaroo rat, pocket gopher, and a number of types of mice. Also occurring in this part of this cover type are additional species found in the annual grasslands cover type. Deer are common; elk were numerous in the past. The western gray squirrel frequents stands of Garry oak. The fauna of the aspen portion of the cover type throughout the Rocky Mountain area is essentially that of the adjacent or surrounding cover types, but the aspen stands serve as important areas of food and shelter for many species of wildlife. Where hardwood stands occur on river bottoms in the plains, they are a home for many arboreal and forest-edge species that are not present in the surrounding open country. 3.12.2.2.6 Douglas-fir Cover Type Vegetation. This cover type is characterized by forest consisting of 50 percent or more Douglas fir, except where redwood, sugar pine, or western white pine comprise 20 percent or more of the stand. Common shrubs in the cover type are of the genera of maple, rock spirea, filbert, blueberry, snowberry, barberry, currant, blackberry, ninebark, rose, and spirea. Herbage
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includes grass and other vegetation having a grass-like growth form, especially in the stands in interior States. Here, pinegrass and Carex concinnoides are present. Fauna. Common large mammals in this cover type include elk, deer, and black bear. Grizzly bear and moose are in the northern Rockies. Blue and ruffed grouse are present. Most of the northwestern part of the cover type has hawks and owls. Mammalian predators include mountain lions and bobcats. Small mammals include mice, squirrels, marten, chipmunks, and bushy-tailed wood rats. Some of the more common birds are the chestnut-backed chickadee, red-breasted nuthatch, gray jay, and Steller’s jay. 3.12.2.2.7 Lodgepole Pine Cover Type Vegetation. This cover type is characterized by forests in which 50 percent or more of the stand is lodgepole pine. Ecologically, lodgepole pine stands are seral to some of the western interior coniferous forests. “Doghair” stands (tree stands of densities greater than those that are optimum for rapid tree growth and shorter rotations) often develop after fires. Understory species, if present, are of about the same genera as found in stands of western larch, spruce-fir, and interior Douglas fir. Fauna. The lodgepole pine cover type has about the same fauna as Douglas-fir, larch, and spruce-fir forests of the same elevational zone. Low productivity of understory flora in many cases limits the number of animals that can be supported. Islands of uncut lodgepole pine provide excellent escape routes and protective refuges or cover for big game animals. 3.12.2.2.8 Fir-Spruce Cover Type Vegetation. The fir-spruce cover type is characterized by open to dense forests of low to tall needle-leaved evergreen trees and patches of shrubby undergrowth and scattered herbs. Fifty percent or more of the stand is silver fir, subalpine fir, red fir, white fir, mountain hemlock, Engelmann spruce, or blue spruce, singly or in combination, except where western white pine comprises 20 percent or more of the stand (in which case the cover type would be classified as western white pine). Because of the dense overstory and limited understory, heavily stocked stands are usually not considered a forage resource for domestic livestock unless timber is harvested by patch clearcuts. Fauna. Seasonally, the fir-spruce cover type and, in particular, the interspersed openings and stream bottoms with broadleaved woody species such as aspen and willows, are used by moose, elk, mule deer, and white-tailed deer. Mountain caribou originally wintered in Idaho, Washington, and Montana; a few still do. The wolverine, lynx, black bear, mountain lion, coyote, and wolf occur in the cover type. The grizzly bear is present, though in a fraction of its original numbers. Several species that have been mentioned use the fir-spruce cover type only seasonally, primarily as cover or in following migratory routes. This is the case with the mountain sheep and the mountain goat, which occur more commonly in steep rocky areas. Among the birds in the cover type are several blue grouse and spruce grouse groups, ruffed grouse, and various chickadees, nuthatches, bluebirds, robins, and jays. Among the more common rodents and lagomorphs are
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the porcupine, beaver, snowshoe rabbit, squirrels, flying squirrels, pocket gophers, chipmunks, and various species of mice. 3.12.2.2.9 Alpine Tundra Cover Type Vegetation. Grasses and grass-like species of rather low stature predominate, but the number of associated forbs is large. Dwarf willows occur in some places on the moist soils of protected slopes and valleys. Fauna. The pika, pocket gopher, and yellow-bellied marmot are the only permanent mammalian residents of the alpine cover type. Summer visitors include mule deer, elk, mountain sheep, weasels, marten, chipmunks, and the golden-mantled ground squirrel. The only nesting birds are the horned lark, water pipit, black rosy finch, rock wren, white-tailed ptarmigan, and robin. 3.12.2.2.10 Great Plains Grasslands Cover Type Vegetation. Short, warm-season grasses predominate in this cover type, and there is a minor interspersion of forbs and shrubs. Vast stretches are dominated almost exclusively by blue grama, buffalo grass being a companion in many areas. The eastern part of the cover type, however, is dominated by grasses of medium stature, such as western wheatgrass and needlegrass. The occasional shrubs include juniper, silver sagebrush, silver buffalo berry, and skunk bush sumac in the northern reaches and rabbit brush and mesquite in the southern part. Forbs are generally quite common, but many are ephemerals. Fauna. Huge herds of American bison once migrated with the seasons across the central plains. Currently, the pronghorn, or antelope, is probably the most abundant large mammal, but mule deer and white-tailed deer are often abundant where brush cover is available, as along stream courses. The white-tailed jackrabbit occupies the northern part of the cover type and the blacktailed jackrabbit can be found in the area south of Nebraska. The desert cottontail is widespread. The lagomorphs, the prairie dogs, and a variety of small rodents are preyed upon by the coyote and a number of other mammalian and avian predators, one of which, the black-footed ferret, is classed as an endangered species. The lesser prairie chicken, formerly abundant, is now classed as a rare species. Sage grouse, greater prairie chickens, and sharptailed grouse are present in the area. Among the many smaller birds are the horned lark, lark bunting, and western meadowlark. The endangered goldencheeked warbler is in the southeastern portion of the cover type in places where the Ashe juniper is present. Stock pond construction has created an important “duck factory” in the northern Great Plains. 3.12.2.2.11 Southwestern Shrub-Steppe Cover Type Vegetation. The southwestern shrub-steppe cover type is characterized by vegetation types ranging from short grass with scattered shrubs to shrubs with scattered areas of short grasses. Yucca is one of the most characteristic woody plants in the cover type. Mesquite is abundant in many areas. Creosotebush and tarbush are dominant among the shrubs. Black grama, threeawns, and tobosa dominate the herbs. Side-oats grama and curly mesquite are also important.
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The shrub-grass stands occupy shallow soils with no development or little development. The grass-shrub stands occupy the soils with more development. Fauna. Because of the geographic proximity of the two cover types, the fauna of the southwestern shrub steppe cover type is similar to that of the desert grasslands cover type. Pronghorn, or antelope, and mule deer are the most widely distributed large game animals. The common white-tailed deer occurs in the eastern portion of the cover type, in Texas. The collared peccary, or javelina, is common in the southern part of the cover type. The white-winged dove is locally important in Arizona, as is the more widespread mourning dove. The scaled quail and Gambel’s quail are present in most of the area, and the bobwhite reaches the eastern portion of the cover type. The black-tailed jackrabbit, desert cottontail, kangaroo rat, wood rats, and numerous smaller rodents compete with domestic and wild herbivores for available forage and are preyed upon by the coyote, bobcat, golden eagle, great horned owl, red-tailed hawk, and ferruginous hawk. 3.12.2.2.12 Chaparral Mountain Shrub Cover Type Vegetation. The vegetation of the cover type consists of dense to open brush or low trees. Deciduous, semideciduous, and evergreen species are represented. Some of the brush types are so dense that understory vegetation is practically eliminated, while other types support a highly productive understory. Recent activities of man have altered the types of vegetation to such a degree that reconstruction of their original state would be difficult. Fauna. The fauna is quite diverse from north to south in the chaparral-mountain shrub cover type; however, some species are quite widespread. Mule deer throughout the cover type and white-tailed deer in the south are the most important large mammals. Other large mammals, such as the coyote, mountain lion, bobcat, black-tailed jackrabbit, ringtail, striped skunk, and spotted skunk, are widespread in the cover type. Some important species, such as the javelina and the band-tailed pigeon, are found only in the southern part of the cover type. The wood rat is one of the most characteristic animals of the cover type. Other small mammals include ground squirrels and mice. Birds are very numerous in the brush types of the cover type throughout the year. More than a hundred species were identified in the scrub oak type in Utah. More than 40 resident birds were noted in the oak-juniper community. Among the birds in the oak-juniper areas are the goldenfronted woodpecker, turkey, and bobwhite. Reptile species are quite numerous in the southern portion of the cover type. 3.12.2.2.13 Desert Shrub Cover Type Vegetation. The vegetation of the cover type is characterized by xeric shrubs varying high from 4 inches to many feet. Stands are generally open, with a large amount of bare soil and desert pavement exposed. Some stands, however, may be relatively dense. Understory vegetation is generally sparse. During years of above-average rainfall, annuals may be conspicuous for a short time. Fauna. There is a great diversity of habitats in the desert shrub cover type. Consequently, the species of the fauna are quite varied. Dominant animals, however, are characteristically species
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of rats and pocket mice. In the saltbush-greasewood community, the pale kangaroo mouse and little pocket mouse are common. Animals associated with black sagebrush are the desert wood rat and Nuttall’s cottontail. The black-tailed jackrabbit is most numerous in the greasewood sites. The cactus mouse and desert kangaroo rat are abundant in the saltbush desert. Merriam’s kangaroo rat is strongly associated with creosotebush. Other important species in the cover type are the long-tailed pocket mouse and antelope ground squirrel. Common larger mammals in the desert shrub cover type are the desert kit fox, coyote, and western spotted skunk. Desert mule deer and peccary are associated with the paloverde-cactus shrub community. Many desert birds are very selective in their type of habitat. Greasewood may furnish a permanent residence for the loggerhead shrike. Areas where tall cactus is plentiful furnish homes for many birds, including the Gila woodpecker, several species of owl, and the purple martin. Gambel’s quail, the cactus wren, and the roadrunner are common in the southern part of the cover type. Reptiles include numerous species of snakes and lizards, including the Gila monster of the tall cactus areas. 3.12.2.2.14 Invasive Species Noxious weeds have become a persistent problem in the rangelands of the West, and have degraded native habitats throughout the Colorado Basin. Invasive plants and noxious weeds have biological traits that enable them to colonize new areas and successfully compete with native species. They can transform the structure and function of ecosystems through direct competition; changes in nutrient cycling, succession, and disturbance regimes; and shifts in evolutionary selection pressures (Mack and D’Antonio 1998). Certain invasive plant species have the ability to spread over large areas or acutely threaten an ecosystem over its continental range (Hobbs and Humphries, 1995). Noxious weeds and invasive plants found in Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico are listed in Appendix 3.12-D. 3.12.2.3 Aquatic Resources for the Colorado Plateau In the Colorado Plateau coal region, each province (discussed in Section 3.12.2.1) has unique climatic, physiographic, and geologic properties that influence the types of aquatic systems and biota that occur within them. 3.12.2.3.1 Lotic Systems (River and Streams) Major perennial rivers that run through the provinces that are found in the coal region include the Green, Yampa, White, Little Colorado, Colorado, Rio Grande, Pecos, Gila, San Juan, San Francisco, and Little Snake. The largest watershed in the Coal region is the Colorado River watershed. The U.S. Department of Interior, National Park Service’s (NPS) National Rivers Inventory has indicated that manyse rivers not only provide essential habitat to a variety of flora and fauna, but hold economic and aesthetic values as well. For example, Gunnison County, Colorado contains numerous reaches of streams within the Dolores, East, Elk, Gunnison, and Taylor rivers that provide both essential habitat to plants and wildlife, but also provide recreation, scenic and historic areas (NPS, 2005). Over 81% of streams in the Southwest (Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, Colorado and California) are ephemeral or intermittent according to the U.S. Geological Survey National
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Hydrography Dataset (NHD) (USGS, 2006). Most ephemeral and intermittent streams in this coal region are the headwaters or tributaries of perennial streams that drain into larger higherorder perennial streams (Nadeau and Rains, 2007; Levick et al., 2008). Ephemeral and intermittent streams in the desert and semi-desert areas of this coal region are unique in their function when compared to perennial streams located in wetter, more humid regions. The seasonal rainfall patterns in this coal region area vary, which as a result have an effect on stream flows throughout the coal region. 3.12.2.3.1.1 Habitat

A variety of flowing water habitats is present in the Colorado Basin coal region. These include ephemeral, intermittent, low order (1st – 3rd) and higher order (4th – 6th) streams as well as rivers. As described above in Section 3.7, it is estimated that there are a total of 41,030 miles of intermittent streams, 6,650 miles of perennial streams, and 3,320 miles of artificial channels in the coal region. A more detailed discussion about the general habitat features of these different types of streams is presented in Appendix 3.12-B. Ephemeral and intermittent stream channels provide critical wildlife movement corridors in arid and semi-arid regions because they contain continuous chains of vegetation that provide food and cover for wildlife. Small floods that occur during the summer monsoons create corridors of water that allow the dispersal of herpetofauna such as garter snakes (Thamnopis sp.) and various amphibians (Levick et. al, 2008). 3.12.2.3.1.2 Energy Flow/Primary Production

The riparian areas surrounding lotic systems in this coal region are vital to the persistence of biota. Riparian ecosystems occupy small portions of the landscape in arid and semi-arid areas of the coal region, yet they exert substantial influence on hydrologic, geomorphic, and ecological processes (Shaw and Cooper, 2008), and typically support the great majority of biodiversity in these regions (Levick et al., 2008). Plant communities along ephemeral and intermittent streams of the coal region provide food, cover, nesting and breeding habitat, and movement/migration corridors for wildlife that are not as available in the adjacent uplands (Levick et al., 2008). Furthermore, these plant communities include moderating soil and air temperatures, stabilizing channel banks and interfluves, seed banking and trapping of silt and fine sediment favorable to the establishment of diverse floral and faunal species, and dissipating stream energy which aids in flood control (Howe et al., 2008; Levick et al., 2008). Although ephemeral streams can support aquatic species temporarily, they indirectly support aquatic diversity in the coal region by providing required nutrients, food, and other materials to the more perennial downstream reaches. Algal communities comprised of diatoms, filamentous algae, and cyanobacteria are the predominant primary producers in intermittent and ephemeral streams of the more arid areas of the Colorado Basin coal region. These algal communities are so prolific because canopies surrounding the streams are more open than upland streams, and the streams are exposed to higher levels of sunlight. After flood events, algal blooms occur and provide the base of the food
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chain in these systems. When stored water is accessible, primary production can be high for much of the growing season (Atchley et al., 1999; Levick et al., 2008). As the hydrologic regime shifts from perennial to ephemeral, the presence of drought-tolerant species increases, vegetative cover declines, riparian areas transition from forests to shrublands, and canopy height and upper canopy vegetation volume decline (Leenhouts et al., 2006; Stromberg et al., 2007; Levick et al., 2008). Ephemeral streams with intermediate water availability support drought-tolerant shrubs such as wolfberry (Lycium spp.) or brickellbush (Brickellia spp.) and small-leaved trees such as acacia (Acacia greggii), blue palo verde (Parkinsonia floridum), or velvet mesquite (Prosopis velutina) (Hardy et al., 2004; Levick et al., 2008). Along the intermittent and perennial streams, riparian scrublands include seepwillow or batamote (Baccharis glutinosa), broom (Baccharis sarothroides or B. emoryi), arrowweed (Pluchea sericea), and tamarisk (Tamarix chinensis) (Brown et al., 1977; Levick et al., 2008). Hydro-obligate broad-leaved trees (e.g., the mesoriparian species Arizona walnut (Juglans major), and the Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii)) are typically sustained on large washes by floodwater stored in perched ground-water reservoirs (Levick et al., 2008). 3.12.2.3.1.3 Invertebrates

Invertebrates associated with ephemeral, intermittent, and headwater tributaries are important contributors to the biological integrity of stream networks throughout the coal region. Invertebrates constitute a majority of faunal diversity, and aquatic invertebrates and the emergence of some species’ adult forms from streams are a significant component of the food chain. Many invertebrates require a hydrologic connection for their spatial dispersal, even if the connection is ephemeral or intermittent (Nadeau and Rains, 2007). Ephemeral streams in the coal region can contain rich assemblages of invertebrates. Microinvertebrates in these ephemeral systems include copepods, ostracods, and cladocerans (Levick et al., 2008). Intermittent streams in the Southwest provide food sources for numerous macroinvertebrates found within them and in surrounding areas. For example, Graham (2002) studied temporary pools in watercourses in Wupatki National Monument, Arizona, and found 22 taxa of aquatic macroinvertebrates and two taxa of amphibians. Disturbances caused by intermittent flows may actually improve production and food quality and consequently increase insect production in warm-temperate desert streams (Fisher and Gray, 1983; Jackson and Fisher, 1986; Grimm and Fisher, 1989; Huryn and Wallace, 2000; Levick et al., 2008). Whiles and Goldowitz (2005) investigated macroinvertebrate diversity across a hydrologic gradient from ephemeral to perennial streams and found the highest taxon richness and diversity at intermittent sites (Levick et al., 2008). Del Rosario and Resh (2000) compared species richness and abundance of invertebrates in the hyporheic zones of intermittent and perennial streams, and found that intermittent streams had lower densities, similar richness, but higher species diversity than perennial streams (Levick et al., 2008). Various mollusks are found within the coal region and function as filter feeders that eat algae, detritus, and other submersed items on the rocks and substrate within the streams. Mollusks are important sources of food for fish, birds and some mammals in the coal region. Mussels rely on specific fish species as hosts for their larvae called glochidia to complete their life cycle, and removal of these hosts has led to the decline of some species (Harrold and Guralnick, 2010). Specifically, Colorado has 83 mollusk species (8 gastropod families and 3 bivalve families)
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known to occur in various waters throughout the state, but introductions of non-native species (e.g. zebra mussels [Dreissena polymorpha], Quagga mussels [D. bugensis], and New Zealand mudsnails [Potamopyrgus antipodarum], pollution, and the impoundment of rivers and streams have caused declines of some of their populations (CDW, 2006, 2010a, 2010b, 2010c; Harrold and Guralnick, 2010). Crustaceans that occur in the Colorado Plateau are various crayfish and freshwater shrimp, and manyse species are imperiled by pollution, habitat loss, and invasive species. Non-native fishes, introduced crayfishes, such as the rusty crayfish Orconectes rusticus (CDW, 2010b), and exotic mollusks have been a threat to many ecological communities in these areas (ADGF, 2005; Sutter et al., 2005; CDW, 2006). Native crustacean species are rare in Utah and of limited distribution (Sutter et al., 2005). Invasive crayfish populations’ effects in streams, especially in sensitive headwater areas, are receiving increased attention. Crayfish, such as the rusty crayfish, are omnivorous and aggressively consume submerged aquatic vegetation, other macroinvertebrates, and fish species, and they compete for habitat and resources with fish, frogs, reptiles, and snails (AISAC, 2006). 3.12.2.3.1.4 Vertebrates

Fish communities in the Colorado Plateau coal region range from assemblages of warmwater fish (e.g. centrarchids, cyprinids, topminnows, catfishes, perches, catostomids, etc.) in the lower elevations to assemblages of more coolwater species (e.g. darters, sculpins, cyprinids, salmonids, etc.) in the higher gradient streams in the upper elevations. However, the Southwest has among the greatest species endemism in the United States. Among all the states in the coal region, New Mexico holds the greatest fish diversity with 130 species described; Arizona, has 72 fish identified; Colorado, has 48 species described; Utah has the least at only 29 (Sutter et al., 2005; CWD, 2006; NMGF, 2006). Cyprinids and cyprinodontids appear to be the most specious groups of fishes that occur in the various lotic systems in the coal region, and some of the largest members of the family Cyprinidae occur in this coal region. The southwestern deserts of the Basin and Range Province, which encompasses some of the coal region, contain 182 native species of fish, of which 149 are endemic. In these areas, the fish occupy isolated pools within streams that are supplied by underground springs, intermittent marshes, and arroyo habitats which are supplied by water that originates in the wetter mountainous areas (Helfman et al., 1997). Fish communities in the desert areas tend to belong to five major families: Poeciliidae, Cyprinodontidae (e.g. desert pupfish), Cyprinidae, Catostomidae, and Salmonidae (Helfman et al., 1997). Populations of native desert fishes are rapidly dwindling due to destruction of aquatic habitats from urbanization, channelization, land-use change, over grazing by cattle, ground-water pumping, dams, water diversions, and pollution (Rinne and Minckley, 1991). Fish in the extremely arid areas of this coal region are adapted to harsh and variable desert conditions. Thus, the ephemeral and intermittent streams, and isolated pools within them, in the coal region are important to some fish species. For example, pupfish (Cyprinodon sp.) can withstand the high temperatures, alkalinity, and salinity of small desert pools (Pister, 1995; Levick et al., 2008). Another example, longfin dace (Agosia chrysogaster) have the most widespread distribution of any native fish in the Southwest and are highly adapted to withstand drought conditions (Rinne and Minckley, 1991). Longfin dace can survive in relatively high
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water temperatures, poor quality and availability, and have been found alive in moist algal mats where there was not enough water to swim (Hulen, 2007; Rinne and Minckley, 1991; Levick et al., 2008). Larger fishes of coal region belong to the larger, higher-order perennial streams and rivers including the Green, Colorado, Yampa and San Juan river basins and are the most threatened as a result of anthropogenic disturbances and invasive species. Each state has its own stocking program to manage for sportfisheries. Fishes typically managed in this manner include, but are not limited to, rainbow (Oncorhynchus mykiss), brook (Salvelinus sp.), and brown trout (Salmo trutta), and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) (ADGF, 2006). Cutthroat trout serve as an important recreation species in Utah (Sutter et al., 2005). The Colorado Plateau coal region has high herpetofauna diversity, most of which are reptiles. About 17 species of amphibians have been described in Colorado, 10 in Utah, 26 in New Mexico, and 32 in Arizona (Sutter et al., 2005; ADGF, 2006; CDW, 2006; NMGF, 2006). However, there are some introduced species such as the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), that have imperiled other species in some areas of the coal region (AISAC, 2006). Bullfrogs, which are aggressive predators, have been introduced into many locations in the Colorado Plateau coal region. They have displaced native amphibians and have locally depleted populations of native amphibians, reptiles, fish, and even small mammals and birds (AISAC, 2006). 3.12.2.3.2 Lentic Systems 3.12.2.3.2.1 Habitat Lentic systems in the Colorado Plateau coal region tend to be smaller intermittent or ephemeral wallows called playa lakes or larger reservoirs created by the impoundments. Of the 802 lakes surveyed in the “Xeric ecoregion” of the USEPA’s National Lakes Assessment (2010), which includes the Colorado Plateau coal region, 91% were constructed reservoirs. Damming the Colorado River has created large man-made lakes and reservoirs (e.g. Lake Powell) (USEPA, 2010). Smaller impounded streams comprise numerous of man-made lentic systems that provide energy and water supply for various municipalities. Playas fill with water after seasonal rainstorms when freshwater collects in the round depressions of the generally flat landscape of the regions. Some saltwater-filled playas are also found in the region and these systems are fed by water from underlying aquifer that transfer salt as water percolates upward through the soil (USEPA, 2009); the saline conditions in these playas is inhospitable to many freshwater organisms and results in a fauna uniquely adapted to these conditions. Playas are important because they store water in areas commonly subjected to drought conditions and where there are no permanent rivers or streams. Consequently, playas create an oasis-like area that provides habitat for a variety of species, especially in the more arid areas of the coal region. Because playa lakes support such a wide variety of animals, they contribute significantly to the biodiversity of the coal region. 3.12.2.3.2.2 Energy Flow/Primary Production

Flora found in and surrounding playas can be variable upon the periodicity of rain events, agriculture, and substrate (Bolen et al., 1989). During wetter periods, emergent vegetation such
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as bulrushes, cattails, pondweeds, and smartweeds, and barnyard grasses can be present (Bolen et al., 1989). Energy flow and primary production in lentic systems in the Colorado Plateau coal region are variable by location, but are similar to those described for the semi-arid provinces in the Other Western Interior, Northern Rocky Mountains, and Gulf Coast coal regions. 3.12.2.3.2.3 Invertebrates

Invertebrate populations are heavily exploited by the animal community. During their breeding season, various waterfowl and their broods rely on aquatic macroinvertebrates as important sources of protein. Invertebrates in the littoral zones of playas also provide food for a number of shorebirds (Baldassarre and Fischer, 1984; Bolen et al., 1989). Merickel and Wangberg (1981) collected more than 60 species of macroinvertebrates in playa lakes (Bolen et al., 1989); however, such biodiversity is expected to vary depending on location, type of playa, and surrounding flora (Bolen et al., 1989). In some communities of playas, biotic interactions are thought to lead a relatively ordered and predictable succession of organisms (MacKay et al., 1990). MacKay et al., (1990) noted that after flood events, macroinvertebrate productivity increased with the oviposition of flying insects such as mosquitoes (Aedes sp.). Immediately following these floods, mosquito larvae pupated and left the playa within eight days, simultaneously, freshwater shrimp (Eulimnadia sp., Streptocephalus sp., Triops sp., and Thamnocephalus sp.) densities increased and then dissipated as the playa dried. Such species in playa lakes likely have adapted quick reproductive life cycles to avoid competition and predation by other organisms that develop and colonize the playas (MacKay et al., 1990). 3.12.2.3.2.4 Vertebrates

Amphibian species and their dependencies on playas are poorly understood. However, multiple species have been documented to use playas, primarily during periods of peaked rainfall that triggers their breeding activities (Bolen et al., 1989). Tiger salamanders (Ambystoma tigrinum) use playas in the Southern High Plains to spawn, and leopard frogs (Rana sp.), bullfrogs (R. catesbeiana), cricket frogs (Acris spp.), spotted chorus frogs (Pseudacris sp.), Great Plains toads (Bufo cognatus) and spadefoot toads (Scaphiopus spp.) also occur in these playas (Bolen et al., 1989; MacKay et al., 1990). Fish do not commonly inhabit playas because of their intermittent persistence. Playas that have been altered for irrigation and agriculture have had introductions of various fish species to support some angling activity. Bolen et al. (1989) noted that playas that historically contained no fish populations now support black bullhead (Ameiurus melas). Waterfowl commonly winter in the playa lakes of the region (Bolen et al., 1989); the USEPA (2009) noted up to 2 million waterfowl can use playas. Whooping cranes (Grus americana) and up to 400,000 sandhill cranes (G. canadensis) have been documented to use the playas as wading and feeding habitat (Bolen et al., 1989). Ring-necked pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) also use playa lakes as wintering habitat in this region (Bolen et al., 1989). Species native to areas
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surrounding these systems survive because of the existence of playa lakes. Numerous terrestrial species use the playas as source of drinking water.

3.12.3 Gulf Coast Basin
The Gulf Coast Basin is an area of approximately 192,020 square miles and includes coal bearing counties primarily in Texas, Louisiana, and Mississippi (Figure 3.12-4).

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Figure 3.12-4 USFS Provinces Located Within the Gulf Coast Basin Coal Region

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3.12.3.1 General Ecological Setting Table 3.12-7 lists the ecological provinces located within this coal region and the approximate area of each. Table 3.12-6: USFS Provinces Associated with the Gulf Coast Coal Basin Ecological Province Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest Prairie Parkland (Subtropical) Southeastern Mixed Forest Southwest Plateau and Plains Dry Steppe and Shrub Area of Coal Region in Province (sq mi) 111 3,979 4,473 1,172

The general province descriptions provided below for the ecological provinces distributed within the Gulf Coast Coal Region come from McNab (2007), Cleland et al (1997), and USDA-USFS (1993). 3.12.3.1.1 Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest Province A description of the Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest is provided above in Section 3.12.1. The Gulf Coast Basin coal region encompasses approximately 20% of this province. Most of the province’s numerous streams are intermittent to perennial, and sluggish; marshes, swamps, and lakes are numerous. Major rivers that run through the province in the coal region include the Sabine, Red, Mississippi, Mobile, Chattahoochee, and the Flint. Few natural lakes and reservoirs are present, but small ponds and impoundments are abundant. 3.12.3.1.2 Prairie Parkland (Subtropical) Province This province is a region of gently rolling to flat plains, manym part of the Gulf Coastal Plain. Over 50 percent of the area is gently sloping. Elevations range from sea level to 1,300 feet (McNab and Avers, 1994). This province has a modified maritime subtropical, humid climate of relatively warm winters and hot summers. Moderate amounts of precipitation occurring during summer. Landforms are plains with low hills. Vegetation is mainly herbaceous with areas of deciduous broadleaf woodland, particularly along floodplains (McNab et al, 2007). The Prairie Parkland (Subtropical) province is approximately 95,165 square miles. The coal counties of the Gulf Coast Basin coal region overlies approximately 5% of the province. In the central Texas area of the province, there is a low to moderate density of perennial streams and associated rivers that form dendritic drainage patterns. These streams mostly have low to moderate rates of flow and moderate velocity (McNab and Avers, 1994). One of the major rivers draining this area is the Red River. A relatively large number of water reservoirs have also been constructed. Along the Texas coast, fluvial deposition and shore-zone processes are active in developing and maintaining beaches, swamps, and mud flats (McNab and Avers, 1994). There is a low density
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of small to medium size perennial streams and associated rivers, most with moderate volume of water flowing at low velocity. A major river draining this area is the Trinity. In the southern areas of the province small to medium size perennial streams and a low density of associated rivers occur, most with moderate volume of water flowing at very low velocity. Approaching the coast, the water table is high, resulting in poor natural drainage and abundance of wetlands (McNab and Avers, 1994). A poorly defined drainage pattern has developed on very young plains near the coast. An abundance of palustrine systems are present, having seasonally high water level (McNab and Avers, 1994). 3.12.3.1.3 Southeastern Mixed Forest Province A description of the Southeastern Mixed Forest province is provided above in Section 3.12.1. The coal counties of the Gulf Coast Basin coal region encompass only a small portion of the 181,556 square miles of this province. In eastern Texas, and northwest Louisiana, there are small to medium size perennial streams and associated rivers, most with moderate volume of water flowing at low velocity (McNab and Avers, 1994). In eastern Mississippi small to medium perennial streams and associated rivers are present, most with moderate volume of water at low velocity. These lotic systems form a dendritic drainage and tend to lack bedrock control (McNab and Avers, 1994). Major rivers in this ecological province within the Gulf Coast Basin coal region are the Arkansas, Red, and Ouachita. 3.12.3.1.4 Southwest Plateau and Plains Dry Steppe and Shrub Province This is a region of flat to rolling plains and plateaus occasionally dissected by canyons at the western end of the Gulf Coastal Plain and the southern end of the Great Plains. Elevations range from sea level to 3,600 feet on the Edwards Plateau and to 6,500 feet near the Rocky Mountain Piedmont (McNab and Avers, 1994). A warm, modified marine subhumid climate characterizes the Gulf Coast Basin coal region portion of this ecological province. Most precipitation falls during the growing season, but is less than potential evaporation. Vegetation is mainly herbaceous with shrubland with increasing woodland on steeper slopes. The Gulf Coast Basin coal region encompasses approximately only a small portion of the 168,334 square miles of the province. Aquatic systems in the Edwards Plateau consist of small intermittent and occasional perennial streams forming a dendritic drainage pattern (McNab and Avers, 1994). All streams generally have a low volume of water flowing at low velocity, except along the plateau escarpment, where flow rates can be high (McNab and Avers, 1994). Major rivers include the Brazos and Colorado continental shelf, which was later exposed by sea level subsidence (McNab and Avers, 1994). In the southern portion of this province, small to medium intermittent streams are present in a dendritic drainage pattern, and major rivers include the Rio Grande and Nueces (McNab and Avers, 1994). 3.12.3.2 Terrestrial Resources The Gulf Coast Basin coal region study area includes many different terrestrial habits over a broad area of the southeastern United States, ranging from desert habitats in west Texas to coastal areas of the Florida panhandle. The coal counties with active mines which comprise the
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study area in this region extend from Texas to Mississippi. Except as noted, all of the ecoregion descriptions and vegetation cover type descriptions are taken from McNab et al. (2007). In central Texas, the Gulf Coast Basin coal belt consists of three ecoregion sections, the Rolling Plains Section, the Southwest Plateau and Plains Dry Steppe, and Shrub Province, characterized by Great Plains grasslands, prairie cover types, and oak-hickory. The eastern portion of this coal region is within the Prairie Parkland Province, characterized by cropland, mesquite-lotebush shrub areas with yucca, juniper, bluestems and snakeweed, and mesquite brush areas with yucca, prickly pear, and grama (McMahan et al. 1984). The most significant portion of the Gulf Coast Basin coal belt crosses numerous ecoregions. In southern Texas, the coal region includes the Southwest Plateau and Plains Dry Steppe and Shrub Province and associated with the Texas savanna and oak-hickory cover types, including extensive cropland, mesquite-blackbrush brush, and mesquite-Granjeno parks (McMahan et al. 1984). Further east, the coal region is within the Prairie Parkland Province, characterized by oakhickory and oak-pine cover types, including extensive cropland, post oak woods/forest and post oak woods/forest/grassland (McMahan et al. 1984). In eastern Texas, areas are characterized by loblolly-shortleaf pine, oak-pine, oak-hickory, oakgum-cypress cover, and longleaf-slash pine types, including young forest/grassland, loblolly pine-hardwood forest, and native/introduced grasses (McMahan et al. 1984). East of Texas, the coal region is characterized with oak-hickory, oak-gum-cypress, oak-pine, loblolly-shortleaf pine, prairie, and longleaf-slash pine cover types. The Mississippi River and its associated environments have been a large contributing factor to the development of ecosystems in these regions. Natural vegetation in these areas varies with topography and hydrology and is incorporated into a patchwork of a predominantly open, agricultural landscape (LMVJV, 2007). Moving east through central Mississippi, the coal region is within the Southeastern Mixed Forest Province. This section is characterized by oak-pine, loblolly-shortleaf pine, and oak-hickory cover types. In Louisiana a portion of the coal belt is located within the Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest Province, characterized by longleaf-slash pine, loblolly-shortleaf pine, oak-hickory, and oakgum-cypress cover types. 3.12.3.2.1 Oak-Hickory Cover Type A summary of the Oak-Hickory Cover type is described above in Section 3.12.1. 3.12.3.2.2 Oak-Pine Cover Type A summary of the Oak-Pine Cover type is described above in Section 3.12.1.

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3.12.3.2.3 Great Plains Grasslands Cover Type A summary of the Great Plains Grassland Cover type is described above in Section 3.12.2. 3.12.3.2.4 Prairie Cover Type Vegetation. The prairie cover type is known to many as the tall-grass or true prairie. Bluestem grasses constitute about 70 percent of the vegetation and reach heights of 5–6 feet in lowland areas. Large numbers of flowering forbs are present but are usually overshadowed by the grasses. Most of the plants are classified as warm-season plants. Woody vegetation is rare. Willow occurs in some places in exceptionally moist areas of the northern part of the cover type, and needle-leaved evergreens and broadleaved deciduous trees are scattered in the southern part. Deciduous trees are common along permanent streams in the eastern portion. Fauna. Bison once grazed at the western margin of the tall-grass prairie, and the pronghorn, or antelope, is still present there. Jackrabbits are common residents of the prairie, and cottontails are present where there are streams and cover. Burrowing rodents include ground squirrels, prairie dogs, pocket gophers, and many smaller rodents. Burrowing predators include the badger and the black-footed ferret, now considered an endangered species. The Texas red wolf is classed as an endangered species on the southern border of the cover type. The coyote is still common. The northern portion of the prairie cover type is an important breeding area for a number of species of migrating waterfowl. Many migratory species over-winter on the coastal plains of Texas and Louisiana. Mourning doves have become abundant as shelterbelt plantings have developed. Among the gallinaceous birds, the sharp-tailed grouse, greater prairie chicken, and bobwhite are present in fair numbers. 3.12.3.2.5 Loblolly-Shortleaf Pine Cover Type A summary of Loblolly-Shortleaf Cover type is described above in Section 3.12.1. 3.12.3.2.6 Oak-Gum-Cypress Cover Type Vegetation. The vegetation of this cover type varies considerably, but the dominants are of tree life form. It is made up of bottom-land forests in which 50 percent or more of the stand is tupelo, blackgum, sweetgum, oak, and bald cypress, singly or in combination—except where pines comprise 25–49 percent of the stand (in which case the cover type is oak-pine). Common associates include willow, maple, sycamore, cottonwood, and beech. Most species are broadleaved deciduous trees. Trees of the mangrove swamp are mainly black mangrove and red mangrove. The vegetation of the cypress savanna is dominated by needle-leaved deciduous trees and some broadleaved evergreen or deciduous trees and shrubs. The trees and shrubs occur in groves surrounded by open grassland dominated mainly by three-awn species. Mangrove swamps are often flooded by tidewater; the cypress savanna is flooded less frequently and only by fresh water. These forests are important in providing mitigating effects to land use activities in upland areas outside of the forest boundaries (Sharitz and Mitsch 1993). Fauna. This cover type is the most fertile and productive of southern habitats for wildlife. In times past, large animals, such as the deer, elk, black bear, mountain lion, bobcat, and wolf,
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inhabited the forest. Presently, the white-tailed deer is common in most areas. Other mammals include the gray fox, gray squirrel, fox squirrel, raccoon, opossum, striped skunk, eastern cottontail, swamp rabbit, and many small rodents and shrews. Birds include wild turkeys and, in the flooded areas, ibises, cormorants, herons, egrets, and kingfishers. Common mammals in the mangrove area are the fox squirrel and raccoon. Nesting birds include the mangrove cuckoo and various herons and egrets. 3.12.3.2.7 Longleaf-Slash Pine Cover Type Vegetation. This cover type is characterized by forests in which 50 percent or more of the stand is loblolly pine, shortleaf pine, or other southern yellow pines, singly or in combination. Common associates include oak, hickory, sweetgum, blackgum, red maple, and winged elm. The main grasses are bluestems, panicums, and longleaf uniola. Dogwood, viburnum, haw, blueberry, American beautyberry, yaupon, and numerous woody vines are common. Fauna. The fauna varies with the age and stocking of the timber stand, the percentage of deciduous trees, and the proximity to openings, bottom-land forest types, and other characteristics. The white-tailed deer is widespread, as is the cottontail. When deciduous trees are present, the fox squirrel is common on uplands. Gray squirrels are found along intersecting drainages. Raccoon and fox are found throughout the cover type and are hunted in many areas. The eastern wild turkey, bobwhite, and mourning dove are widespread. In mature forests, the density of breeding birds is about 240 pairs per 100 acres. Of the 20 odd species present, the most common include the pine warbler, cardinal, summer tanager, Carolina wren, ruby-throated hummingbird, blue jay, hooded warbler, eastern towhee, and tufted titmouse. 3.12.3.2.8 Texas Savanna Cover Type Vegetation. This is a high-shrub savanna cover type with a dense to very open synusia of broadleaved, deciduous and evergreen low trees and shrubs and needle-leaved, evergreen low trees and shrubs. The grass varies from short to medium tall, and the herbaceous vegetation varies from dense to open. Mesquite is the most widespread woody plant. Others are Acacia spp., oaks, juniper, and ceniza along the Rio Grande valley and bluffs. Opuntia cactus species are widespread. The herbaceous plants are mainly bluestems, three-awns, buffalo grass, gramas, and curly mesquite and tobosa on the Edwards Plateau. Fauna. The Texas savanna cover type is noted for the abundance of white-tailed deer and wild turkeys. The collared peccary is common in some areas along the Rio Grande, where several species of Mexican or tropical distribution make their only entry into the United States. Examples are the chachalaca and the coatimundi. The armadillo is present. The fox squirrel is present in wooded areas along streams. Among the fur bearers are the ringtail and the raccoon. 3.12.3.2.9 Invasive Species Noxious weeds and invasive plants distributed in the states of the Gulf Coast coal region are summarized in Appendix 3.12-D.
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3.12.3.3 Aquatic Resources Aquatic systems within the Gulf Coast coal region span from arid western Texas to the subtropical Mississippi lowlands. Aquatic systems within this coal region are diverse in structure, flows, composition, and biota. Major rivers include the Chattahoochee River, Mobile River, Mississippi River, Red River, Brazos River, and the Rio Grande. 3.12.3.3.1 Lotic Systems 3.12.3.3.1.1 Habitat A variety of flowing water habitats is present in the Gulf Coast coal region. These include ephemeral, intermittent, low order (1st – 3rd) and higher order (4th – 6th) streams as well as rivers. According to analysis completed above in Section 3.7, it is estimated that there are a total of 132,560 miles of intermittent streams, 83,870 miles of perennial streams, and 29,590 miles of artificial channels in the coal region. A more detailed discussion about the general habitat features of these different types of streams is presented in Appendix 3.12-B. Streams in the Gulf Coast coal region create riparian habitat for plants and animals (USEPA, 2006; Levick et al., 2008). Prairie streams found in this coal region tend to be of two types: sandor clay-bottomed. The uplands in these areas have streams with stony-bottomed substrates. In contrast, the exchange of water with bottom substrates is variable by stream type (Matthews, 1988). Water in clay-bottomed prairie streams tends to have longer residence time and less water exchange with substrate when compared to sand-bottomed streams (Matthews, 1988). During summer months, the drying up of intermittent clay-bottomed streams creates small pools that provide habitat for aquatic fauna. The variety of streams towards the humid-subtropical coastal areas of the coal region can be described as small to medium size perennial streams adjacent to larger rivers, and their arrangement within the watersheds follow a dendritic pattern. Streams that occur in these coastal areas are warmwater streams, which have lower gradient, moderate to high discharges, low turbulence, and rubble-sand-mud substrates (Winger 1981; Felley, 1992; Hackney et. al, 1992). Coastal streams in the Gulf region tend to be acidic, low in conductivity, salinity, hardness, and nutrient levels, except in regions where streams drain over limestone bedrock high in phosphate (e.g. Peninsular Florida) (Felley, 1992). Streams in this region are also subject to pulsed floods that are crucial for moving nutrients and particulates downstream (Livingston, 1992). Blackwater streams are more common along the coast than whitewater streams and alluvial rivers, and are unique in that they often contain more dissolved organic compounds than other streams (Smock and Gilinsky, 1992). The dissolved oxygen levels in medium to low gradient whitewater and alluvial streams tend to be high throughout most of the year, not dropping below 70% saturation (Felley, 1992; Hackney et. al, 1992). Blackwater streams often face oxygen depletion during summer months as a result of increased temperatures. Furthermore, the oxygen concentrations in the hyporheic zones of smaller blackwater streams are low to anoxic during the warmer months (Smock and Gilinsky, 1992). Most upstream reaches and smaller streams are sand-bottomed. Discharge of streams in this province is seasonally variable and dependent on stream order (Felley, 1992; Hackney et. al, 1992). Often, low flows occur from June through
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October and a period of higher flows occurs from November to May, where flows are highest from January to March (Felley, 1992; Smock and Gilinsky, 1992). Many headwater streams in this region tend to be intermittent and dry during the summer leaving only isolated pools (Smock and Gilinsky, 1992). During the winter rains, most discharge flows through the floodplains surrounding the streams. 3.12.3.3.1.2 Energy Flow/Primary Production

The productivity of lotic systems in the Gulf Coast basin varies spatially and temporally. Prairie streams exhibit productivity patterns similar to desert streams. Headwater streams of southern prairies are sunlit and lack forest cover. Matthews (1988) stated that these systems may be somewhat autochthonous in that filamentous algae may serve as significant primary producers in these systems. Bott et al. (1985) found higher rates of autochthonous production in prairie streams similar to desert streams (Matthews, 1988). Matthews (1988) further noted that streams that rely on allochthonous inputs obtain them from detritus from decaying grasses surrounding the streams (Matthews, 1988). The algal community of streams in the Gulf Coastal plain is dominated by diatoms and filamentous algae. Seasonal algal blooms often occur during the late winter and early spring months (Smock and Gilinsky, 1992). The distribution of filamentous algae and its extensive growth within the blackwater streams in the Gulf coast region is related to inundation of streams by beavers (Castor canadensis) (Smock and Gilinsky, 1992). Unicellular producers tend to be more important in slower moving waters in the downstream reaches of streams, and are rare in areas with flowing water and dense, surrounding vegetative cover (Felley, 1992). Light is a limiting factor to primary production in blackwater streams because of canopy development and light attenuation (Smock and Gilinsky, 1992). Blackwater streams in the Gulf Coastal plain tend to have low rates of primary production and are primarily heterotrophic systems (Smock and Gilinsky, 1992). Animals in these systems exploit dissolved organic compounds as the primary source of food in these streams. Floodplains serve as the functional headwaters of river systems in the Gulf coastal plain (Smock and Gilinsky, 1992). Smock and Gilinsky (1992) noted that detritus processing is dependent on hydrologic events that move organic material (e.g. leaves and debris) downstream to leaf-shredding macroinvertebrates; for blackwaters, these organisms are generally found in the perennial streams. In intermittent streams, isopods and amphipods are the predominant shredders. Submerged plants are important contributors to the primary production of streams in the Gulf coastal plain. Submerged vegetation also provides food and cover for various aquatic animals found in the Gulf coast streams. Typically, submerged vegetation is not as abundant in headwater streams, but becomes more common in higher order streams of the province. Water nymphs (Najas sp.), coontails (Ceratophyllum sp.), bladderworts (Utricularia sp.), eel grass (Vallisneria sp.), exotic hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) and water hyacinth (Eichoria crassipes) are some submerged plant species found in the province (Felley, 1992; Hackney et al., 1992). A majority of the primary production in the low-order and upstream reaches of streams occurs in the riparian or wetland areas surrounding these streams. Emergent plants are also important producers found in streams in this region, especially those surrounding headwater streams. Many species of emergent vegetation in the Gulf coastal plain
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have adapted to periodic flooding and drought conditions and can grow on saturated and drying soil (Hackney et al., 1992). Tree species such as bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) and water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica), and various grasses (Cladium sp., Juncus sp., Rynchspora sp., etc.), grow along the edges of low gradient streams that may remain wet for most of the year. Such species are important because they stabilize the banks of these streams as well as supply cover and food for animals, influence stream temperature, and provide nutrient input to the streams (Felley, 1992). Floating plants such as duckweed, water lettuce, water hyacinth, and alligator weed are also common (Livingston, 1992). The USEPA-WSA (USEPA, 2006) indicated that the streams assessed in the Gulf Coastal Plains ecoregion had good condition of vegetative cover on 52% of stream length. Floodplains of the streams in this region also have distinctive vegetation communities. Cypress swamps can be found along the coast from Florida to Texas, and southern bottomland hardwood swamps can also be found (Livingston, 1992). 3.12.3.3.1.3 Invertebrates

The continental and subtropical areas of the Gulf Coast coal region contain high aquatic invertebrate diversity. Multiple studies have characterized the diverse arthropod communities found in the various small and mid-sized streams in the coastal plains (Berner, 1950, 1988; Penn, 1959; Beck, 1980; Barr and Chapin, 1988; Felley; 1992). Berner (1950) found that southeastern coastal areas of the region had more mayfly genera than any other physiographic region of the United States (summarized in Hackney et al., 1992). The ephemeral and intermittent streams of prairie provinces tend to support lower aquatic macroinvertebrate diversity than coastal and temperate areas of the coal region (Matthews, 1988). The lack aquatic macroinvertebrate diversity is likely attributable to unpredictable flows, homogenous substrates, and the prevalence of mud and sandy stream bottoms. In the prairie provinces, riffles in streams serve as optimal habitat for macroinvertebrates. Furthermore, spring fed streams in prairie regions often have higher macroinvertebrate diversity than other prairie streams (Matthews, 1988). Invertebrate biomass varies seasonally in Gulf coastal streams, and seasonal biomass varies among drainages (Carver, 1975; Bass and Hitt, 1977, 1978; Bass et al., 1980; Felley, 1992). Smaller streams (orders 1-4) have lower biomass in the summer than larger streams (order 5 +) which tend to have peak biomass during these months (Felley, 1992). Furthermore, Felley (1992) noted that variations in invertebrate productivity within drainages are associated with habitat types. The more productive streams in coastal areas are those with vegetation or fine sand/mud substrates with detritus, and productivity is lower in streams with clean, sandy bottoms (Felley, 1992). The primary food source exploited by the invertebrates in smaller to medium streams in this coal region is detritus, which most enters coastal plain streams during the fall, winter and early spring, and enters prairie streams in the spring and early summer. In headwaters, invertebrates tend to be collectors/gatherers and scrapers; further downstream, these organisms are important, but predator abundance gradually increases (Felley 1992). Prairie streams tend to have a lower abundance of shredders than those with abundant broad-leaved riparian vegetation and much of the processing of particulate organic matter is done by microbes (Matthews, 1988). In the extreme headwaters of coastal areas, invertebrates (e.g. copepods, cladocerans, and rotifers) are abundant and restricted to pools and temporary ponds (Felley, 1992). Larger arthropods such as
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odonates, culicids, isopods, and amphipods are common throughout the various reaches of streams, including the headwaters. Oligochaetes and chironomids are the dominant taxa found in the more permanent streams, but ephemeropterans, ceratopogonids, and gastropods are also abundant (Felley; 1992). Riffle beetles (Elmidae) and trichopterans tend to be abundant in sandbottom streams (Felley, 1992). Crayfish species are extremely diverse in the southeastern United States, especially within the Gulf Coast Region. Crayfish found in the aquatic systems of the Gulf Coast coal region are ecologically important as predators, processors of organic materials, and as food sources for a variety of fish and terrestrial species (Taylor et al., 2007). Most of the freshwater mussel species known to occur in the U.S. are distributed in the Southeast. With regard to freshwater mussel diversity in the states of the Gulf Coast coal region, 53 species of the 300 species known to occur in the U.S. occur in Texas, 175 occur in Alabama, 84 occur in Mississippi, 63 occur in Louisiana, and 51 occur in Florida (Neves et al., 1997). The dominant mussel species in most Gulf coastal streams are introduced Asiatic mussels (Corbicula sp.), but multiple native species reside in the larger perennial streams, some which are endemic to the waters in which they are found. 3.12.3.3.1.4 Vertebrates

The southeastern United States is one of the most specious regions for reptiles and amphibians. Snakes (Nerodia spp., Farancia spp., Regina spp., Agkistrodon spp.), turtles (Sternotherus spp., Kinosternon spp., Clemmys spp., Chelydra spp., Pseudemys spp., Apalone spp., Graptemys spp.), and alligators are some of the common reptile genera that can be found in small and mediumsized Gulf coastal plain streams and their floodplains. Various frogs (Rana spp., Pseudacris spp., Hyla spp., Acris spp.), amphiuma (Amphiuma spp.), sirens (Siren spp.), waterdogs (Necturus spp.), and Ambystomatid and Plethodontid salamanders can be found as well. Manyse species are widely distributed and are represented by several subspecies. Felley (1992) noted that many species of map turtles found in this region are confined to particular drainages. Over half of the amphibian genera in the Southeast have species that live in small streams, seeps, bogs or swamps (Dodd 1997; Meyer et al., 2003). Multiple species of stream salamanders require headwater seeps and small streams in forested habitats to maintain viable populations (Petranka 1998; Meyer, 2003). Fish assemblages in the Gulf Coast Region tend to be very diverse. In a study conducted in prairie streams stream size was the most important factor that influenced the structure of fish assemblages (Fischer and Paukert, 2008). Spatially, fish communities of the coal region tend to become relatively more diverse from the arid western areas eastward to the more humidsubtropical areas. However, the diversity of fish communities is suspected to have decreased and become more homogenized over time (Hubbs et al., 1997). Fish communities in the western plains tend be comprised of species that have adapted to harsh seasonal conditions and are represented by generalists (e.g. cyprinids, catostomids, centrarchids, ictalurids, topminnows, etc.) (Fischer and Paukert, 2008). Fish diversity in prairie streams tends to be low because of higher saline waters and frequent droughts (Matthews, 1988). Cyprinids tend to be the dominant group of fish in prairie streams.
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Fish communities of the coastal provinces are diverse and are comprised of warmwater fish species such as sunfishes and black basses (Centrarchidae), darters (Percidae), minnows (Cyprinidae), suckers (Catostomidae), and catfishes (Ictaluridae). In larger streams, black basses, gar (Lepisosteidae), bowfin (Amiidae), and catfishes are the dominant predators in these fish communities. Anadromous fishes include sturgeons (Ascipenseridae), shad (Clupeidae), and striped bass (Moronidae). There are few endemic freshwater fish species limited to the mediumlow gradient streams of the province. Blackwater streams in this region are said to be more diverse than streams within the Piedmont or mountain streams (Smock and Gilinsky, 1992). Ross and Baker (1983) noted that 42 species were found within a small Mississippi stream (Smock and Gilinsky, 1992). Fish diversity increases with stream order (Livingston, 1992). Most species that are limited to the small to medium streams belong to genera that are considered to speciate readily: shiners (Notropis), topminnows (Fundulus), and darters (Etheostoma) (Felley, 1992). Such species are considered to produce many eggs and have a protracted spawning season to assure that reproduction is successful despite dry periods or sudden disturbances (Heins and Clemmer, 1976; Heins and Rabito, 1986; Heins and Baker, 1987, Felley, 1992). Coastal Plain streams and their floodplains are important spawning and nursery grounds for a variety of fish species. 3.12.3.3.2 Lentic Systems 3.12.3.3.2.1 Habitat Lentic systems in the Gulf Coast coal region tend to be variable in that they are more ephemeral and intermittent in the arid and semi-arid provinces in the west and are more permanent in the more humid, eastern provinces. Lentic systems in the Southwest Plateau and Plains Dry Steppe Province tend to be smaller intermittent or ephemeral wallows called playa lakes as well as some larger reservoirs. Lentic systems in the subtropical provinces (e.g. Prairie Parkland, Lower Mississippi Riverine Forest, Southeast Mixed Forest, and Outer Coastal Plain Mixed Forest) are mostly man-made impoundments and private ponds. Natural lentic systems in this coal region are fluvial lakes (Crisman, 1992). A subset of major lakes of the region includes the Toledo Bend (TX) and Sam Rayburn Reservoirs (TX/LA), and the massive lake-wetland complexes north of the Gulf Coast (USEPA, 2010). The Coastal Plains is also home to a variety of lakes and ponds such as southeastern blackwater lakes, Carolina “Bays,” and the limestone-rich clear lakes of the Florida peninsula (USEPA, 2010). Small impoundments and farm ponds are common in the coal region, and they are formed by impounding small perennial or intermittent streams (Menzel and Cooper, 1992). The biotic communities of smaller ponds and impoundments in the region are more affected by natural and artificial outside influences as a result of their isolation from other water bodies. Generally, the small impoundments are constructed for water supply, recreation, and flood control. Water temperatures in these small ponds and impoundments often approximate that of the air temperature because of their small volume and shallow depth (Menzel and Cooper, 1992). This results in seasonal stratification. Natural lakes in the coal region usually discharge by simple overflow of surface water, whereas reservoir discharge is dependent on releases controlled by outlet structures that can be located at various depths. Southeastern reservoirs tend to be deep and stratify seasonally. Water released
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from these reservoirs is typically released from the hypolimnion (Soballe et al., 1992). Released water can vary in nutrient content, but it tends to have cooler temperatures and the releases can have significant ecological effects to the receiving streams. Reservoir tailwaters are used heavily by anglers that seek coolwater species, but such releases can harm warm water fisheries; state fisheries managers often stock these “put-and-take” fisheries (Soballe et al., 1992). 3.12.3.3.2.2 Energy Flow/Primary Production

Plants surrounding lentic systems in this coal region provide a significant amount of allochthonous energy input through leaf litter fall. The ponds, lakes and reservoirs also receive sediments and additional nutrients from surface runoff during precipitation events that can contribute to the energy balance. The species of phytoplankton found in lentic systems and their distribution depends on the size and location of the system. Often, smaller impoundments are dominated by benthic forms of algae that detach and become a part of the planktonic population (Menzel and Cooper, 1992). More planktonic forms and diatoms are more prevalent in larger systems. Stable water levels and prolific macrophytes prevent higher rates of primary production from occurring in reservoirs, but overall these systems tend to be nutrient rich and moderately productive (Soballe et al., 1992). Seasonally, the algal community shifts from diatoms or green algae in the winter and spring to blue-green algae during the summer and fall (Menzel and Cooper, 1992). Blue-green algae often become a dominant primary producer in areas that receive higher levels of nutrient inputs such as fertilizers with nitrogen and phosphorus or organic manures. Primary production by macrophytes is more important within smaller ponds and impoundments in this coal region compared to more northern latitudes, whereas phytoplankton provide much of the primary production in larger systems (Menzel and Cooper, 1992). Floating plants in lentic systems can become so dense that they shade out phytoplankton in the water column. This can lead to oxygen depletion in the water column which can result in fish kills. Emergent vegetation in the littoral zone varies across the coal region. Common herbaceous plants surrounding lentic systems include rush grasses, beggarticks (Bidens sp.), sedge grasses, cattails (Typha spp.), spikerush, and marsh-purslane (Ludwigia sp.) (Menzel and Cooper, 1992). Trees such as red maple (Acer rubrum), hazel alder (Alnus spp.), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), willows (Salix spp.), and tupelo are common near the shores of lentic systems in this coal region. 3.12.3.3.2.3 Invertebrates

Cladocerans and copepods are major biomass contributors in lentic systems in this coal region, and they filter a significant amount of the detritus and serve as a critical link in the food chain between primary producers and fish (Menzel and Cooper, 1992; Soballe et al., 1992). Common genera of zooplankton include Daphnia, Bosmina, and Mesocyclops. Rotifers and protozoans also can be found, but tend to comprise a smaller percentage of biomass (Menzel and Cooper, 1992; Soballe et al., 1992). Chironomids also serve as an important food source for many species in lentic systems including bluegill, brown bullhead, and golden shiner (Mozley, 1968; Menzel and Cooper, 1992)

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3.12.3.3.2.4

Vertebrates

Lentic systems in the Gulf Coast coal region tend to have fish communities comprised of generalist species such as sunfishes, black basses, white basses, catfishes, perches, and suckers. In smaller impoundments, largemouth bass is the top predator and will eat many other species like sunfishes, amphibians, reptiles, and even small birds and mammals (Menzel and Cooper, 1992). Sunfishes are important forage fish in lentic systems in the southeast, but they have the ability to overpopulate smaller systems and produce stunted individuals. Other common fish species that occur in lentic systems in this coal region are gar, bowfin, minnows, golden shiners (Notemigonous crysoleucas), topminnows, and introduced species such as the common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Many centrarchids, moronids, and ictalurids found in the lentic systems in the continental and subtropical areas support popular sportfisheries. Clupeid species (e.g. shads) are important prey for a number of the predatory fish in these lentic systems. Reptiles and amphibians rely heavily on the littoral habitats of the lentic ecosystems for food and cover. Various species of snakes, lizards, and turtles also use littoral areas of lentic systems for foraging sites. Presence of reptiles in or near the aquatic systems in this coal region is positively correlated increasing sedimentation, decreasing water depths, and increasing abundance of prey species (Menzel and Cooper, 1992). Amphibians, especially salamanders, tend to avoid lentic systems populated by predatory fish species (Kats et al., 1988; Figiel and Semlitsch, 1990; Kats et al., 1992). Ephemeral and intermittent ponds are especially important for breeding sites for ambystomatid salamanders like the marbled (Ambystoma opacum), spotted (A. maculatum), and mole salamanders (A. talpoideum) and various frog species during the fall, winter, and spring seasons.

3.12.4 Illinois Basin
The active mining in the Illinois Basin Coal Region stretches across three primary states: Illinois, Indiana, and western Kentucky. Most of the coal region lies within the state of Illinois (Figure 3.12-5).

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Figure 3.12-5 USFS Provinces Located Within the Illinois Basin Coal Region

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3.12.4.1 General Ecological Setting for Illinois Basin Coal Region Table 3.12-7 lists the ecological provinces located within this coal region and the approximate area of each. Table 3.12-7: USFS Provinces Associated with the Illinois Basin Coal Region Area of Coal Region in Province (sq mi) 9914 321 601 Surface Area of Coal Region (sq mi) 12,483

Ecological Province Central Interior Broadleaf Forest Midwest Broadleaf Forest Prairie Parkland (Temperate)

The general province descriptions provided below for the ecological provinces distributed within the Illinois Basin Coal Region come from McNab (2007), Cleland et al (1997), and USDA-USFS (1993). 3.12.4.1.1 Prairie Parkland (Temperate) Province This province covers an extensive area from Canada to Oklahoma, with alternating prairie and deciduous forest. The topography is mostly gently rolling plains, but steep bluffs border a number of valleys. Some areas are nearly flat; others have high rounded hills. Elevations range from 300 to 2,000 feet. The far northern portion of the province has been glaciated (McNab and Avers, 1994). The climatic regime is cold winters and hot summers. Moderate amounts of precipitation occur mainly during growing season. Landform is mainly plains with areas of low hills. Vegetation was once herbaceous with woodland of scattered deciduous broadleaf trees along floodplains of major rivers; almost all has now been cleared for agriculture (McNab et al, 2007). The counties with active coal mining in the Illinois Basin coal region encompasses only a tiny fraction of this ecological province. Allochthonous energy sources for streams in this province include plains with native vegetation of herbaceous prairies, and woodlands scattered along the floodplains of major rivers, of which almost all has now been cleared for agriculture (McNab et al., 2005). Illinois has a system of lakes dominated by manmade bodies of water ranging in scale from huge flood control reservoirs to worked-out stone quarries, gravel pits, and farm ponds (IDNR, 1994a). Natural lakes and ponds are rare or non-existent in this province (McNab and Avers, 1994). Stream and river systems are well developed and have integrated dendritic drainage networks that are carved into the land surface in this province (McNab and Avers, 1994). 3.12.4.1.2 Midwest Broadleaf Forest Province A description of the Midwest Broadleaf Forest province is provided above in Section 3.12.1. The Illinois Basin coal region encompasses only a tiny fraction of the 141,756 square mile province. Streams in the Michigan portion of this province drain to the Great Lakes, while streams in the Indiana portion of this province are in the Ohio River watershed Lakes in this province are generally small to medium size. Wetlands are formed in extensive low-lying areas
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in former glacial lakebeds in the province (McNab and Avers, 1994). There is moderate to high density of streams in this province; low gradient streams and rivers are predominant, and typically have substrates composed of sand, gravel, bedrock, and boulders (McNab and Avers, 1994). 3.12.4.1.3 Central Interior Broadleaf Province A description of the Central Interior Broadleaf Forest province is provided above in Section 3.12.1. The coal counties with active mines in the Illinois Basin coal region encompass approximately 8% of the 119,790 square mile province. The geomorphology of the province leads to drainage areas of shallow entrenchment, and in some local areas, of exposed limestone and sandstone bedrock. There is a moderate density of medium to large perennial streams, most with moderate volume of water at low velocity, composed of dendritic drainage patterns (McNab and Avers, 1994). This area has a handful of natural lakes from previous glacial events; however, most of the lakes in the region are manmade (IDNR, 1994a). The few natural lentic systems in the Central Interior Broadleaf Forest Province predominantly consist of lakes and wetlands in oxbows along the Kaskaskia, Big Muddy, and Wabash river flood plains (McNab and Avers, 1994). 3.12.4.2 Terrestrial Resources The Illinois coal region is divided into two distinct areas. The first area is located mostly within Illinois, Indiana, and Kentucky and is characterized by mostly agricultural land, with natural vegetation consisting of oak-hickory, elm-ash-cottonwood, oak-gum-cypress, prairie, oak-pine, maple-beech-birch, and aspen-birch cover types. 3.12.4.2.1 Oak-Hickory Cover Type Vegetation. The oak-hickory cover type varies from open to closed woods with a strong to weak understory of shrubs, vines, and herbaceous plants. By definition, oak and hickory must make up 50 percent of the stand, singly or in combination. The cover type includes multiple vegetation communities, including the Coastal Plain in Alabama and Mississippi, the oak-hickory forest and the mosaic of the oak-hickory forest and bluestem prairie communities of the Ozark Plateaus and interior low plateaus and their extensions, the oak forest of the Appalachians, and the Cross Timbers area of Texas. Sweetgum and red cedar are close associates in the southern region of the cover type. Maple, elm, yellow-poplar, and black walnut often are close associates in eastern and northern parts of the oak forest and the oak-hickory-bluestem mosaic. The major shrubs are blueberry, viburnum, dogwood, rhododendron, and sumac. The major vines are woodbine, grape, poison ivy, greenbrier, and blackberry. Important herbaceous plants are sedge, panicum, bluestem, lespedeza, tick clover, goldenrod, pussytoes, and aster; many more are abundant locally. In Illinois, the canopy can be dominated by white oak (Quercus alba) and mockernut hickory (Carya alba), with pignut hickory (Carya glabra) and eastern black oak (Quercus velutina). Northern red oak (Quercus rubra) may be found in the subcanopy of some examples, particularly on north- and east-facing slopes. The subcanopy may also contain red maple (Acer rubrum), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea), American
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hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), and sourwood (Oxydendrum arboretum). Hillside blueberry (Vaccinium pallidum) may be a prominent low shrub in some examples, along with deerberry (Vaccinium stamineum) and maple-leaved viburnum (Viburnum acerifolium). The herb dominance may be quite variable depending on aspect. Some other herbs which may be found include slender toothwort (Cardamine angustata), wild comfrey (Cynoglossum virginianum var. virginianum), Small's blacksnakeroot (Sanicula smallii), and ebony spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron). Numerous benefits are provided by the oak-hickory land cover type, including wildlife, timber, watershed protection, recreation, and wilderness, and achieving a desirable mix of these benefits requires careful management (Skeen et al. 1993). Fauna. The fauna of the oak-hickory cover type is similar to that of other eastern hardwood and hardwood-conifer areas and varies somewhat from north to south. Important animals in the cover type include the white-tailed deer, black bear, bobcat, gray fox, raccoon, gray squirrel, fox squirrel, eastern chipmunk, white-footed mouse, pine vole, short-tailed shrew, and cotton mouse. Bird populations are large. The turkey, ruffed grouse, bobwhite, and mourning dove are game birds in various parts of the cover type. Breeding bird populations average about 225 pairs per 100 acres and include some 24 or 25 species. The most abundant breeding birds include the cardinal, tufted titmouse, wood thrush, summer tanager, red-eyed vireo, blue-gray gnatcatcher, hooded warbler, and Carolina wren. The box turtle, common garter snake, and timber rattlesnake are characteristic reptiles. 3.12.4.2.2 Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Cover Type Vegetation. The vegetation of this cover type is a tree life form of low to tall broadleaved deciduous trees, varying from open to dense and often accompanied by vines. Cottonwood species usually dominate the cover type and often occur in pure stands. Cottonwood is most common along the streams. Swamp cottonwood is more common in other places. Common associates in the north are willow species and green and white ash. Sycamore and sugarberry are common associates in the south. Other common associates are willow, sycamore, beech, and maple. The cottonwood-willow stage is short lived. This stage is followed by the river birch and silver maple-American elm types in the north and by the sycamore-pecan-American elm or sugarberry-American elm-green ash types in the south. In Illinois, this cover type includes sugar maple (Acer saccharinum), cottonwood (Populus deltoides), sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), American elm (Ulmus Americana), slippery elm (Ulmus rubra), black willow (Salix nigra), boxelder (Acer negundo), river birch (Betula nigra), hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica). Species that may be present in the shrub layer include American beautyberry (Sambucus Canadensis) or spicebush (Lindera benzoin). Woody and herbaceous vines can be prominent, including, among the woody vines, Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) and riverbank grape (Vitis riparia). Herbaceous vines species include groundnut (Apios americana), American hogpeanut (Amphicarpaea bracteata), and wild cucumber (Echinocystis lobata). Herbaceous grasses, forbs, and ferns dominate the ground layer, including calico aster (Symphyotrichum lateriflorum), false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrical), Virginia wildrye (Elymus virginicus), pale touch-me-not
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(Impatiens pallida), Canadian woodnettle (Laportea canadensis), ostrich fern (Matteuccia struthiopteris), sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis), Canadian clearweed (Pilea pumila), and stinging nettle (Urtica dioica) (Faber-Langendoen, 2001). Fauna. Since this cover type is far flung and is in the main flood plains of rivers dissecting a number of other, quite different cover types, the fauna is varied and, in many cases, influent from the surrounding cover types. Forest-edge animals and birds are common, and numerous ones include the cottontail, bobwhite, white-tailed deer, raccoon, red fox, coyote, striped skunk, spotted skunk, meadow jumping mouse, fox squirrel, and ground squirrels. The sharp-tailed grouse inhabits grassy areas and open areas in the forest. The ruffed grouse is also present. Other birds include the catbird, goldfinch, yellow-billed cuckoo, indigo bunting, cardinal, lark sparrow, mockingbird, common crow, blue jay, robin, ruby-throated hummingbird, and Cooper’s hawk. 3.12.4.2.3 Oak-Pine Cover Type A summary of the Oak-Pine Cover type is included above in Section 3.12.1. 3.12.4.2.4 Maple-Beech-Birch Cover Type A summary of the Maple-Beech-Birch Cover type is included above in Section 3.12.1. 3.12.4.2.5 Aspen-Birch Cover Type A summary of the Aspen-Birch Cover type is included above in Section 3.12.1. 3.12.4.2.6 Prairie Cover Type A summary of the Prairie Cover type is included above in Section 3.12.3. 3.12.4.2.7 Oak-Gum-Cypress Cover Type A summary of the Oak-Gum-Cypress Cover type is included above in Section 3.12.3. 3.12.4.2.8 Invasive Species Noxious weeds and invasive plants distributed in the states of the Illinois Basin coal region are summarized in Appendix 3.12-D. 3.12.4.3 Aquatic Resources for Illinois Basin 3.12.4.3.1 Lotic Systems 3.12.4.3.1.1 Habitat A variety of flowing water habitats is present in the Illinois Basin coal region. These include ephemeral, intermittent, low order (1st – 3rd) and higher order (4th – 6th) streams as well as rivers. According to the analysis completed in Section 3.7 above, it is estimated that there are a total of 36,270 miles of intermittent streams, 30,320 miles of perennial streams, and 6,040 miles of artificial channels in the coal region. A more detailed discussion about the general habitat features of these different types of streams is presented in Appendix 3.12-B.
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The major rivers in the coal region include the Illinois River, Ohio River, Wabash River, and the Upper Mississippi River The flat and rolling topography of the Illinois Basin has facilitated the development of these rivers and streams into predominantly dendritic drainage patterns. Historically streams in this basin, particularly in Illinois, have been heavily impacted by anthropogenic manipulation and influence. Channelization has profoundly affected the function of many streams. More than 25% of the total length of sizeable streams in the Rock, Sangamon, Fox/Des Plaines, and Kankakee/Vermilion/Mackinaw basins has been straightened (IDNR, 1994a). In addition, nearly every sizeable stream in Illinois is dammed in at least one spot, creating a total inventory of nearly 1,200 dams (IDNR, 1994a). In large rivers, dams combined with high artificial levees have prevented the natural flooding and drying cycle in the floodplains that formerly maintained a highly productive and diverse biota (IDNR, 1994a). Physical changes remain a perturbing force in Illinois Basin stream ecology, with erosion and sedimentation among the current regional problems. An annual state water survey from Illinois acknowledges that erosion and sedimentation are major problems recognized by the State of Illinois, USACE, nongovernment organizations, and local citizens (IDNR, 2008). Much of this sedimentation and erosion is attributed to agricultural activities, and the lack of riparian vegetation. The rivers and streams of the Illinois Basin Coal Region are affected by the surrounding land uses. Nutrient inputs from terrestrial source, such as nitrogen (N) and phosphorous (P) are important to aquatic systems as a unit of nutrient cycling. The transport of nutrients into aquatic systems in the Illinois Basin is largely attributed to nonpoint overland sheetflow (Gentry et al., 2007). However, there is a problem of excessive nutrient loads from nonpoint pollution sources in the Illinois Basin, contributing to poor water quality. Anthropogenic sources of P and N include sewage, agricultural runoff, lawn fertilizers, pet wastes, and atmospheric pollution (Dodson, 2005). Although sewage effluent is still a large nutrient source, agriculture has been identified as the major nonpoint source of nutrients to surface waters, due largely to the use of commercial fertilizers to increase crop yields in the Midwest (Gentry et al., 2007). 3.12.4.3.1.2 Energy Flow/Primary Production

Carbon compounds have a large influence on ecosystem processes in these streams. The primary energy source for aquatic systems can be based on carbon fixed by photosynthesis within the system (autochthonous), or on inputs of carbon-containing organic materials from outside of the system (allochthonous). A common source of carbon is dissolved organic carbon (DOC), which is typically produced in the water from particulate organic carbon, such as leaf litter inputs that serve as an allochthonous energy source for Illinois Basin aquatic systems. The role of detritivores that remobilize carbon into food webs is an important part of energy production, particularly in small streams of the Illinois Basin (Hart and Reynolds, 2002). Carbon, particularly inorganic carbon, supports the major pH buffering system in freshwater (Dodson, 2005). A primary source of inorganic carbon in these streams is carbonate found in limestone and dolomite bedrocks and soils, which are common throughout the coal region (McNab et al., 2005). Algal biomass consisting of cyanobacteria, filamentous chlorophytes, halophilic diatoms, and diatoms comprises the major unit of primary production in streams of the Illinois Basin region. The species and type of these organisms is influenced by water chemistry, land use, and geology
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throughout the Illinois Basin (Leland and Porter, 2000). Light and nutrients are key determinants controlling algal productivity. Though the streams in the coal region are dominated by algal production, aquatic plants are also important to stream ecosystems, providing food and cover for fauna, and recycling nutrients (Illinois DNR, 1994a). Many streams provide the shallow-water habitats that facilitate the development of rich aquatic plant communities. The growth and maintenance of these communities are dependent on slope, substrate, and the stability of stream discharge (Reid, 1961). In flowing waters, rooted aquatic plants are more common than floating species. Macrophytes common in streams in the Illinois coal basin include spatterdock (Nuphar lutea), arrowleaf (Sagittaria spp.), water-plantains (Alisma spp.), and creeping water primrose (Ludwigia grandiflora) (Roegge and Evans, 2003). Common herbaceous species which occur along the banks and shores of nearly all rivers and streams are woodreed (Cinna arundinacea), pony grass (Eragrostis hypnoides), sedges (Carex spp.), tall hempweed (Acnida altissima), Rorippa sessiliflora, Gerardia lenuifolia, Leucospora multifida, and Aster praealtus (Mohlenbrock et al., 1961). In the Illinois Basin common woody species along stream banks which contribute allochthonous carbon, stabilize banks, and shade the stream include American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), river birch (Betula nigra), sandbar willow (Salix interior), and swamp chestnut (Quercus michauxii) (Mohlenbrock et al., 1961). Common invasive aquatic plants in the coal region include hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata), water-hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), waterclover (Marsilea quadrifolia), purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), and Eurasian water milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) (Illinois ANSP, 2010). 3.12.4.3.1.3 Invertebrates

Segmented worms (Annelida) are typically abundant in the streams of the Illinois Basin. They consume considerable quantities of organic substances, and the continual working of burrowing species turn over much of the material in the sediment, which aids in the assimilation of carbon into the aquatic system (Reid, 1961). Annelids are also integral items in the diets of larger organisms, such as species of fish. Common stream insects in the Illinois Basin include stoneflies (Plecoptera); damselflies and dragon flies (Odonata); mayflies (Ephemeroptera); caddisflies (Tricoptera); mosquitoes, blackflies, and craneflies (Diptera). A large number of these insects shred and scrape decaying organic material, which aid in the assimilation of allochthonous inputs to the aquatic system (Dodson, 2005). Manyse aquatic insects are predatory, and actively feed on smaller insects and other invertebrates. Mussels are important species in the aquatic systems of the Illinois Basin. Unionid mussels often constitute the highest percentage of biomass relative to other benthic stream animals; therefore, they are a key link in the food chain between aquatic microorganisms, such as algae and bacteria, and large animals like otter, turtles, fish, and hellbenders that prey on them (Badra, 2005). Freshwater mussels are also natural water purifiers; as a single mussel filters several gallons of water a day (TNC, 2010). The Illinois Basin is very rich in freshwater mussel diversity. Of the over 300 species of freshwater mussels known to occur in North America, approximately 27% (80 species), are known to occur in Illinois alone (Warren, 1995); while 47 species are known from Indiana (TNC 2010), and 103 species are known to occur in Kentucky (KDFWR, 2007).
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However, invasive mussel species, particularly the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha), are competing with native species for resources and habitat (Illinois ANSP, 2010). Crayfish are relatively common freshwater crustaceans that inhabit very diverse niches that include small streams, large rivers, lakes, and even subterranean environments (Fetzner, 1996). Like freshwater mussels, crayfish are abundantly diverse in the Illinois Basin Coal Region. Illinois is home to 23 species, while 17 species are known to occur in Indiana, and 51 species in Kentucky (Fetzner, 2010). These species totals represent only moderate overlap between states, as crayfish are commonly restricted geographically. Species of crayfish that are known to occur in each state of the Illinois Basin include devil crawfish (Cambarus diogenes), big water crayfish (Cambarus robustus), digger crayfish (Fallicambarus fodiens), calico crayfish (Orconectes immunis), virile crayfish (Orconectes virilis), and white river crawfish (Procambarus acutus acutus).Crayfish have significant roles in aquatic ecosystems, and are a major component of the food web. They are omnivorous and process organic matter in addition to feeding on snails, small fish, and aquatic insects; they transform energy between different levels in the food chain, and are themselves eaten by more than 240 predators (Butler et al., 2003). Invasive crayfish species in the region include the rusty crayfish (Orconectes rusticus), and the Louisiana or red swamp crawfish (Procambarus clarkii) (Illinois ANSP, 2010). 3.12.4.3.1.4 Vertebrates

Salamanders are observed less often than other amphibians, such as frogs and toads, as they typically emerge only at night, or following a heavy rainfall. Often mistaken for lizards, these moist-skinned, secretive creatures play a very important role in nature, especially in woodland and wetland habitats and are in greater abundance than people typically realize (MDNRE, 2010b). Amphibians, such as salamanders, account for a considerable portion of energy flow in an ecosystem because they are abundant and ectothermic, and ingested energy is efficiently transferred to other trophic levels in the food web (Pough, 1980; Regester et al., 2005). In the Illinois Basin, salamanders are an abundant and diverse group and perform multiple ecological roles in aquatic systems (Regester et al., 2005). In Illinois, where a large portion of the Illinois Basin Coal Region is located, 20 species of salamanders are known to occur (Illinois DNR, 2010a); 22 species in Indiana (Indiana DNR 2010a), and 19 species are found in western Kentucky (WKU, 2010a). Though some salamanders are terrestrial for much of the year and inhabit forest burrows, or are found under logs, rocks, and leaves, they breed in water; salamander larvae and aquatic adult of some species rely on rivers, creeks, lakes, ponds, swamps, and ditches as habitat. Due to their permeable skin frogs are semi-aquatic; while frogs and toads typically depend on streams, ponds, or lakes, for their larvae to develop in water. There are 22 species of frogs and toads in Illinois (Illinois DNR 2010c), 17 species in Indiana (Indiana DNR, 2010b), and 16 species in western Kentucky (WKU, 2010b). Like most amphibians, frogs are ecosystem indicators; because of their skin permeability, frogs are susceptible to the absorption of many pollutants in waters of poor quality. Frogs are an important component of the vertebrate food chain and are consumed by a variety of predators, including fish, snakes, and turtles (Moler, 1994). Turtles inhabit a unique blend of niches from wetlands, to uplands. There are 17 species of turtles in Illinois (Illinois DNR, 2010c), 17 species in Indiana (Indiana DNR, 2010c), and 15
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species in Kentucky (KDFWR, 2010). These species include both aquatic and terrestrial turtles. Aquatic turtles are known to survive from 40 to 70 years, remaining an important part of the aquatic system (Indiana DNR, 2010c). There are a total of 39 species of snakes that inhabit Illinois, dwelling in forests, grasslands, marshes, swamps, ponds, lakes, streams, rivers, and sloughs (Illinois DNR, 2010d). Many species are semi-aquatic, and are important components of the food web that transfer energy between terrestrial and aquatic environments. The Illinois Basin is rich in fish species, which are not only important to aquatic systems for their ecological value, but also to the regional economy. Fish assemblages are variable across the basin depending on stream type; however, there is a lot of species overlap between stream types, and the assemblage descriptions below represent common assemblages. Shallowly entrenched, slow-flowing, meandering streams are common in most of the Illinois Basin. Fish assemblages in this stream type commonly include largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), crappie (Pomoxis annularis), bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), yellow perch(Perca flavescens), the striped shiner (Luxilus chrysocephalus), the silverjaw minnow (Notropis buccatus), bluntnose minnow (Pimephales notatus), the sand shiner (Notropis stramineus), quillback (Carpiodes cyprinus), and silver redhorse (Moxostoma anisurum) (OSM, 2008; Pescitelli and Rung, 2009). Medium to large perennial streams and associated rivers are common to the rolling landscapes throughout the Illinois Basin. Fish assemblages in this stream type commonly include smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu), channel catfish, bluegill, walleye, the central stoneroller (Campostoma anomalum), the bluntnose minnow, the sand shiner, and the hornyhead chub (Nocomis biguttatus) (Pescitelli and Rung, 2009). Upland clear, rocky streams are typically cool-water streams that are typically found in the upper reaches of watersheds. They are present across the Illinois Basin, but are more common in the southern tip of Illinois, western Kentucky, and Michigan. Fish assemblages in this stream type commonly include the central stoneroller, the bluntnose minnow, the sand shiner, the hornyhead chub, the spotfin shiner (Cyprinella spiloptera), striped shiner, large-scale stoneroller (Campostoma oligolepis), banded darter (Etheostoma zonale), creek chub (Semotilus atromaculatus), and the white sucker (Catostomus commersonii) ( Pescitelli and Rung, 2009). Other species of note are the least brook lamprey (Lampetra aepyptera), black spottedtop minnow (Fundulus olivaceus), and the spottail darter (Etheostoma squamiceps) (OSM, 2008). Invasive species of salmonids such as rainbow trout, or steelhead (Oncorhynchus mykiss), Chinook salmon (O. tshawytscha), Coho salmon (O. kisutch), and pink salmon (O. gorbuscha) are also common throughout the coal region (MDNRE, 2010f; Illinois ANSP, 2010). Anthropogenic impacts have drastically changed the fish assemblages in the Illinois Basin of the last century and a half. Out of the fish species present streams at the turn of the century in Illinois, approximately one in five has been extirpated or is threatened by extinction (Illinois DNR, 1994a). Selective overfishing, extensive watershed modifications, draining wetlands, and the introduction of exotics, especially the sea lamprey, alewife, and salmonid species, have all contributed to the decline of fish assemblages in the Illinois Basin (Karr et al., 1985).

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3.12.4.3.2 Lentic Systems 3.12.4.3.2.1 Habitat There are a high number of lakes and wetlands in the Illinois Basin due to past geologic events and the construction of reservoirs and ponds. In contrast, natural lakes are rare in the prairie sections of Illinois. However, there are prairie potholes and historic oxbows along the floodplains of meandering streams and rivers. Lentic systems have been heavily impacted by indirect filling through the process of erosion and sedimentation from agricultural activities in the Illinois Basin (IDNR, 1994a). Unlike the flowthrough system of streams, lakes tend to collect not only sediment but most of the pollutants that are washed into them, and thus they function, in part, as environmental sinks for agricultural pollutants such as nitrogen- and phosphorous-containing compounds. This has resulted in excessive algal and macrophyte growth in ponds and lakes in the Illinois Basin caused by plant nutrients washed into them from farm fields and septic fields, such as hog and cattle lagoons (IDNR, 1994a). 3.12.4.3.2.2 Energy Flow/Primary Production

In the Illinois Basin, the litoral zone of ponds and lakes generally extends from the depth of rooted plant growth, usually 15 to 25 feet deep, as submersed plants generally do not grow below a depth of 30 feet due to light and pressure limitations (O'Neal and Soulliere, 2006). There are a high number of plants that contribute to primary production in the litoral zone and the shoreline. These plants are responsible for a significant portion of the primary production for the entire lentic systems (Ozimek et al., 1990; Wetzel, 2001). Common aquatic plants in lakes and ponds in the Illinois basin are similar to those listed above for the streams in this basin 3.12.4.3.2.3 Invertebrates

The macroinvertebrates that are common in the lotic systems of the Illinois Basin are similar to those that occur in the lentic systems of the coal region described above. As mentioned above in the discussion for lentic systems, freshwater mussels are abundantly diverse in the Illinois Basin Coal Region. Different mussels species have varying habitat preferences, some live in large rivers, some in small creeks, and some in lentic systems with standing water, such as ponds or lakes. Their role in the food web, their water filtering activities, and their habitat production are very important to the aquatic systems the mussels inhabit. Crayfish are abundant in lentic systems in the Illinois Basin. In ponds, crayfish are generally found in shallow waters such as the littoral zone, and typically inhabit waters less than a meter in depth (Pennak, 1989). Despite this limitation, lakes and ponds can attain production as high as 500, 1000, or 1500 lbs of crayfish per acre, though averages are usually closer to 100 lbs per acre (Pennak, 1989). This abundance indicates the importance of crayfish in lentic food webs, both for processing organic matter, and as a food source for turtles, fish, and otters.

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3.12.4.3.2.4

Vertebrates

The importance of salamanders in the Illinois Basin was discussed above for the lotic systems. Lentic systems are particularly import to terrestrial salamanders, who use ponds, lakes, and wetlands for reproduction and for their larval stage. As with lotic systems, the main threat to salamanders in lentic systems is habitat loss, fragmentation and degradation. The draining or filling of wetlands can be a particular threat to terrestrial salamanders. Frogs and toads typically depend on streams, ponds, or lakes, for their larval development. They are an important component of the vertebrate food chain in these lentic systems, as they are abundant, and they efficiently transfer energy to other trophic levels in the food web, and are consumed by a variety of predators. Reptiles are an import part of lentic systems in the Illinois Basin. Aquatic turtles can represent a significant portion of biomass in a lentic system. In a recent study in a southern Illinois lentic system, four of the ten turtles present were found to have a biomass greater than 55 pounds per acre (Dreslik et al., 2005). Semi-aquatic snake species are also important components of the food web because they transfer energy between terrestrial and lentic environments. These snakes feed on fish, frogs, tadpoles, salamander, crayfish, and insects in wetlands, lakes, and ponds (MDNRE, 2010e). The rich fish fauna in the Illinois Basin is important to lentic systems and the regional economy, as 73% of fishing trips in Illinois are to lakes, ponds, or reservoirs (IDNR, 2003). In the lentic systems of Illinois, fish assemblages are usually a mix of warmwater species and commonly include largemouth bass, bluegill, crappie, bullhead catfish (Ameiurus melas), channel catfish, carp (Cyprinus carpio), white bass (Morone chrysops), hybrid striped bass (M. saxatilis x M. chrysops), freshwater drum (Aplodinotus grunniens), and various sunfish species (Cruse and Wight, 1996a; Cruse and Wight, 1996b; Cruse and Wight, 1998). Other notable species in Illinois basin lentic systems include walleye, yellow bass (Morone mississippiensis), northern pike (Esox lucius), and muskellunge (E. masquinongy) (Cruse and Wight, 1996a; Cruse and Wight, 1996b; Cruse and Wight, 1998). Historical selective overfishing, draining wetlands, and the introduction of exotics, especially the sea lamprey, alewife, and salmonid species, have all contributed to the decline of fish assemblages in the Illinois Basin (Karr et al., 1985).

3.12.5 Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Basin
The coal mining counties of the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Basin region straddles the continental divide, including primary areas in Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, and North Dakota (Figure 3.12-6).

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Figure 3.12-6 USFS Provinces Within the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Basin Coal Region

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3.12.5.1 General Ecological Setting for Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Table 3.12-8 lists the ecological provinces located within this coal region and the approximate area of each. Table 3.12-8: USFS Provinces Associated with the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region Ecological Province Great Plains - Palouse Dry Steppe Great Plains Steppe Intermountain Semi-Desert Middle Rocky Mountain Steppe Coniferous Forest - Alpine Meadow Southern Rocky Mountain Steppe - Open Woodland - Coniferous Forest - Alpine Meadow Area of Coal Region in Province (sq mi) 22,288 34 15,587 292 1825

The general province descriptions provided below for the ecological provinces distributed within the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Basin Coal Region come from McNab (2007), Cleland et al (1997), and USDA-USFS (1993). 3.12.5.1.1 Great Plains-Palouse Dry Steppe Province A description of the Great Plains – Palouse Dry Steppe province is presented above in Section 3.12.2. The counties in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains coal region with active mines encompass only a tiny fraction of this 304,723 square mile province. Major rivers in the province are large plains rivers such as the Platte, Missouri, and Arkansas. 3.12.5.1.2 Middle Rocky Mountain Steppe-Coniferous Forest-Alpine Meadow Province Most of central Idaho and the Salmon River Mountains are formed by granitic intrusions that collectively make up the Idaho Batholith, with altitudes ranging from 3,000 to 7,000 ft. The batholith is deeply dissected, with a relief greater than 3,000 ft, and its granite is heavily weathered over large areas. East of the batholith is a basin-and-range area consisting of mountains, alluvial fans at their bases, and floodplains along the streams draining the valleys. To the west lie the Blue Mountains, which seldom exceed 8,000 feet. Many of the region's higher reaches have been glaciated (McNab and Avers, 1994). This province has a maritime-influenced temperate climate with warm, dry summers and cool to cold, moist winters. Most precipitation occurs during fall, winter, and spring as snow. Dominant landforms are mountains of moderate elevations. Vegetation is mainly evergreen, needleleaf forest that varies in composition with altitude, although lower slopes and plains are dominated by shrubland and herbaceous cover (McNab et al, 2007). The province is approximately 76,257 square miles and the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains coal region encompasses only a small fraction of this
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province. Perennial streams have a dominantly dendritic drainage pattern and are fairly widely spaced in the eastern portion of the province; however, drainage patterns are increasingly complicated in westward portions of the province due to complex geology (McNab and Avers, 1994). Larger streams also flow through the province, such as the Salmon and Missouri Rivers, and are often deeply incised in V-shaped canyons as they leave the mountains. Reservoir lakes, such as Holter Lake and Canyon Ferry Lake are found in this province, while smaller natural alpine lakes produced by glacial events, occur at higher elevations in the province (McNab and Avers, 1994). 3.12.5.1.3 Intermountain Semi-Desert Province This province covers the plains and tablelands of the Columbia-Snake River Plateaus and Wyoming Basin. The plateaus include most of the Northwest’s lava fields. Lying at about 3,000 feet, the plateaus are surrounded by lavas that have been folded or faulted into ridges. To the south, the plateaus grade into the basins and ranges of the Intermountain Desert Province. The Wyoming Basin consists of plains at elevations of 6,000 to 8,000 feet broken by isolated hills and low mountains of 1,000 to 2,000 feet higher than the plains. In the south, broad intermountain basins and isolated small mountain ranges merge into a dissected plateau. Sloping alluvial fans at the edges of the basins merge into flat plains in the center. Badlands are typical of the dissected areas along the region’s outer edges (McNab and Avers, 1994). This province has a climate of hot summers and cool to cold winters. There is low annual precipitation in this province, most of which occurs as snow. Vegetation consists of shrubland on plains; woodlands are on steeper slopes (McNab et al, 2007). The Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains coal region encompasses just about 10% of the approximately 158,853 square miles of the province. Water is scarce in some areas of this province, though rivers flow through the area such as the Green River, the Lower Snake River, and Platte River (McNab and Avers, 1994). These rivers are moderate to deeply incised, warm water, third to fifth order systems with dendritic drainage patterns. The province also supports some small and intermittent streams and cool water streams (McNab and Avers, 1994). 3.12.5.1.4 Great Plains Steppe Province This region is characterized by flat and rolling plains with relief of less than 300 feet. Elevations range from 2,500 feet near the western edge of the province to 1,000 feet at the eastern edge. With the exception of south of the Missouri River, most of the lands are young glacial drifts and dissected till plains. Water covers much of the surface. Loess and sand deposits cover the area south of the Missouri River. This flat-to-rolling hill land has well-developed drainage systems (McNab and Avers, 1994). This province has a dry, continental climate with cool to cold winters; precipitation is about half of potential evapotranspiration. Vegetation is predominantly herbaceous with woodland along riparian areas of waterways (McNab et al, 2007). This province is an area of approximately 141,677 square miles of which the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains coal region encompasses only a tiny fraction. There are somewhat chaotic internal drainage patterns of warm water streams in this province, with many glacial pothole lakes and ponds, and some long, lineal drainages fed by a high density of dendritic drainages (McNab and Avers, 1994). The major river of the province in the coal region is the Mouse River.
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3.12.5.1.5 Southern Rocky Mountain Steppe – Open Woodland – Coniferous Forest – Alpine Meadow A description of the Southern Rocky Mountain Steppe-Open Woodland-Coniferous ForestAlpine Meadow province is provided above in Section 3.12.2. The coal mining area in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains coal region encompasses only a small fraction of this 93,852 square mile Province. Rapidly flowing, cool water, perennial rivers and streams occur in this province, including many short, steep tributaries with high water and sediment delivery efficiencies (McNab and Avers, 1994). Many lakes and wet meadows are associated with areas above 6,000 ft, occurring in glaciated terrain, as well as in high elevation cirques and basins (McNab and Avers, 1994). Major rivers in this province include the Colorado, Arkansas, and the upper reaches of the Rio Grande and Canadian Rivers. 3.12.5.2 Terrestrial Resources for Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains The Northern Rocky-Great Plains coal region study area includes numerous disconnected bands that extend across the north-central United States, including portions of Montana, North Dakota, Wyoming, and Colorado. Except as noted, all of the ecoregion descriptions and vegetation cover type descriptions below are taken from McNab, et al. (2007). Most of the area in this coal region is contained within four ecoregion provinces. In the less mountainous areas of Montana, North Dakota, and Colorado, and Wyoming, the coal region is within the Great Plains-Palouse Dry Steppe Province. Vegetation in this province includes mountain grasslands, Great Plains grasslands, ponderosa pine, sagebrush, prairie, and pinyonjuniper cover types. In the more mountainous regions along its northern side, the coal region is located within the Middle Rocky Mountain Steppe-Coniferous Forest-Alpine Meadow Province. Vegetation in this province includes Douglas fir, lodgepole pine, sagebrush, and mountain grasslands cover types. In the mountainous regions south of the Middle Rocky Mountain Steppe-Coniferous ForestAlpine Meadow Province is the Southern Rocky Mountain Steppe-Open Woodland-Coniferous Forest-Alpine Meadow Province. Vegetation in this province includes lodgepole pine, firspruce, sagebrush, alpine tundra, ponderosa pine, chaparral-mountain shrub, and hemlock-Sitka spruce cover types. In southern Idaho, Wyoming, and Colorado, the coal belt is located within the Intermountain Semidesert Province. Vegetation in this province includes sagebrush, desert shrub, chaparralmountain shrub, Great Plains grasslands, pinyon-juniper, and Douglas-fir cover types. Isolated areas of the coal belt are also located in Great Plains Steppe Province in northern North Dakota, characterized by Great Plains grasslands and aspen-birch cover types; the Northern Rocky Mountain Steppe-Coniferous Forest-Alpine Meadow Province in northwest Montana, characterized by lodgepole pine, fir-spruce, larch, and mountain grasslands cover types; and the Black Hills Coniferous Forest Province in east Wyoming, characterized by ponderosa pine and Great Plains grasslands cover types.

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3.12.5.2.1 Mountain Grasslands Cover Type Vegetation. Although the mountain grasslands cover type ranges from foothills at northerly latitudes to high mountain sites, it is characterized throughout by bunchgrasses of the fescue and wheatgrass groups. Fauna. In the foothills portion of the mountain grasslands cover type, pronghorn, or antelope, are resident and mule deer are winter visitors. Where there is an interface with the sagebrush cover type, common animals are the black-tailed jackrabbit, pygmy cottontail, and various mice. At low to medium elevations, various subspecies of ground squirrels are present, as well as the badger. At medium to high elevations, the grasslands seasonally support Rocky Mountain elk and mule deer. The pocket gopher is well distributed throughout the cover type. Predators, which are well distributed at high elevations, are the bobcat, black bear, and coyote. Two of the more common birds present are the robin and horned lark. Marsh hawks, sparrow hawks, and golden eagles are common raptors. 3.12.5.2.2 Aspen-Birch Cover Type A discussion of the Aspen-Birch Cover type is provided above in Section 3.12.1. 3.12.5.2.3 Larch Cover Type Vegetation. This cover type is characterized by forests in which 50 percent or more of the stand is western larch, except where western white pine comprises 20 percent or more of the timber volume. Ecologically, larch is considered seral to stands of grand fir and stands of Douglas fir. Understory species are commonly of the genera found in spruce-fir stands and some Douglas-fir stands. Fauna. The fauna in the larch cover type is similar to the faunas of the Douglas-fir and firspruce cover types. Larch, however, being a deciduous conifer, lets more light into the stand during part of the year. The difference in the amount of light leads wildlife to prefer the larch stands at times. 3.12.5.2.4 Prairie Cover Type A summary of Prairie Cover type is provided above in Section 3.12.3. 3.12.5.2.5 Pinyon-Juniper Cover Type A summary of the Pinyon-Juniper Cover type is provided above in Section 3.12.2. 3.12.5.2.6 Hemlock-Sitka Spruce Cover Type Vegetation. This cover type is defined as having 50 percent or more of the forest in western hemlock or Sitka spruce or both. Other tree species that may be present to a lesser degree are Douglas fir, grand fir, and western red cedar. Common shrubs include the vine maple, red whortleberry, Cascades mahonia, California dewberry, and coast rhododendron. Usual herbs are American twinflower, hollyfern, cutleaf goldthread, and redwoods violet.

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Fauna. The most common large mammals in this cover type include the elk, deer, black bear, and moose. In the hemlock areas of the northwestern portion, the red-tailed hawk, screech owl, pygmy owl, and great horned owl are avian predators. Mammalian predators include mountain lions, bobcats, wolves, the Pacific marten, and the western spotted skunk. Smaller animals include the deer mouse, Douglas squirrel, bushy-tailed wood rat, Townsend’s chipmunk, and coast mole. Among the more common birds are the red crossbill, chestnut-backed chickadee, red-breasted nuthatch, raven, gray jay, Steller’s jay, hermit warbler, western wood pewee, and pine siskin. Blue and ruffed grouse are also present. 3.12.5.2.7 Ponderosa Pine Cover Type A description of the Ponderosa Pine cover type is provided above in Section 3.12.2. 3.12.5.2.8 Sagebrush Cover Type A description of the Sagebrush cover type is provided above in Section 3.12.2. 3.12.5.2.9 Douglas-fir Cover Type A description of the Douglas-fir cover type is provided in Section 3.12.2. 3.12.5.2.10 Lodgepole Pine Cover Type A description of the Lodgepole Pine cover type is provided above in Section 3.12.2. 3.12.5.2.11 Fir-Spruce Cover Type A description of the Fir-Spruce cover type is provided above in Section 3.12.2. 3.12.5.2.12 Alpine Tundra Cover Type A description of the Alpine Tundra cover Type is provided above in Section 3.12.2. 3.12.5.2.13 Great Plains Grasslands Cover Type A description of the Great Plains Grasslands cover type is provided above in Section 3.12.2. 3.12.5.2.14 Chaparral Mountain Shrub Cover Type A description of the Chaparral Mountain Shrub cover type is provided above in Section 3.12.2. 3.12.5.2.15 Desert Shrub Cover Type A description of the Desert Shrub cover type is provided above in Section 3.12.2. 3.12.5.2.16 Invasive Species Noxious weeds and invasive plants found in the Northern Rocky Mountain and Great Plains coal region are listed in Appendix 3.12-D. 3.12.5.3 Aquatic Resources for Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains The Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region includes streams on both sides of the continental divide. The major rivers that drain to the Pacific include the Green River,
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Colorado River, and Snake River; while the major rivers that drain to the Atlantic include the Platte River, Yellowstone River, Missouri River, Arkansas River, and Canadian River. 3.12.5.3.1 Lotic Systems 3.12.5.3.1.1 Habitat A variety of flowing water habitats is present in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains coal region. These include ephemeral, intermittent, low order (1st – 3rd) and higher order (4th – 6th) streams as well as rivers. According to analysis completed above in Section 3.7, it is estimated that there are a total of 146,670 miles of intermittent streams, 21,660 miles of perennial streams, and 11,380 miles of artificial channels in the coal region. A more detailed discussion about the general habitat features of these different types of streams is presented in Appendix 3.12-B. The predominant stream type in the coal region varies with topography. In general, in the mountains and valleys streams and rivers are often perennial (USACE, 2010). The lower relief topography of the plains and plateaus in this coal region, which are typically more arid, has predominantly ephemeral and intermittent streams, and though major rivers run through these areas, their headwaters are typically found outside of the semiarid regions in the Middle Rockies (USACE, 2010). The headwater streams are rapidly flowing characteristic mountain streams with steep staircase-like channels with steps and plunge pools, and with pools and riffles appearing as stream slope decreases towards the plains and plateaus (EPA, 2006). Streams on the plains are typically low sloped with riffles, runs, pools and few rapids, and are often deeply incised as they exit mountainous areas. Many plains streams have intermittent stream flow with perennial pools that are sustained by groundwater (Peterson et al., 2009). Many streams in this coal region have diversion dams or dams that are used for irrigation withdrawals and reservoirs, in addition to numerous small impoundments, which have been built on small tributary streams (Peterson et al., 2009). The streams and rivers of the coal region have been influenced by a high level of disturbance, with riparian disturbance exceeding 38% in the mountains, and 62% in the plains (Stoddard et al., 2005). In addition, sedimentation from erosion and agricultural activities remain stream habitat stressors, with the vast majority of streams having low stream bed stability, indicating that their substrates are dominated by finer or smaller sediments than would be expected; in the plains, 40% of stream lengths have excessive sedimentation (Stoddard et al., 2005). 3.12.5.3.1.2 Energy Flow/Primary Production

Streams in mountainous areas of the coal region drain forested catchments that provide abundant woody debris as an allochthonous energy source (EPA, 2006). At lower elevations, hardwoods in riparian corridors provide an allochthonous energy source of leaves and woody debris (Peterson et al., 2009). Algal biomass consisting of cyanophbacteria, filamentous chlorophytes, halophilic diatoms, and diatoms comprises a major unit of primary production in the stream of the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region. Although diatoms contribute the most to overall taxa richness, blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) and green algae account for a substantial amount of
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periphyton abundance in this coal region (Peterson et al., 2009). In heavily shaded mountain and canyon streams, light availability can be the overriding factor controlling the algal biomass and primary production, even in the presence of high nutrient concentrations (Mosisch et al., 2001). Although moderate algal biomass is recorded in lower elevation streams of the coal region, in mountainous areas concentrations of chlorophyll a (an indicator of algal biomass) have been found to be generally small, which suggests that primary production is higher in the lower elevations (Peterson et al., 2009). Non-algal macrophytes, such as bryophytes (liverworts, hornworts, and mosses), and emergent and aquatic vascular plants (e.g. sedges, rushes, grasses and shrubs) are locally important primary producers. The growth and maintenance of the macrophyte communities are dependent on slope, substrate, and the stability of stream discharge (Reid, 1961). Common invasive aquatic macrophytes to the aquatic systems in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains coal region include Eurasian water milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum), purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), saltcedar (Tamarix ramosissima), and yellowflag iris (Iris pseudoacorus) (MDA, 2010). 3.12.5.3.1.3 Invertebrates

The most abundant aquatic insects in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains include midges, mosquitoes, blackflies, and craneflies (Diptera); mayflies (Ephemeroptera); caddisflies (Tricoptera); stoneflies (Plecoptera); beetles (Coleoptera); and damselflies and dragon flies (Odonata), respectively (Peterson et al., 2009). A large number of these insects shred and scrape decaying organic material, which aids in the assimilation of allochthonous inputs to the aquatic system (Dodson, 2005). Many aquatic insects are predatory, and actively feed on smaller insects and other invertebrates. In areas of increased disturbance, chironomid (Chironomidae) and other groups like scuds, mites, and pond snails increase in abundance. 3.12.5.3.1.4 Vertebrates

In general, places like the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region have fewer species and lower diversity of reptiles and amphibians because the mostly cold and short growing seasons that give reptiles and amphibians little time and energy to complete their life cycle (Crowder et al., 2010). Cold-blooded physiology can be a real limitation on the species of reptiles and amphibians found in this coal region; regardless, these species remain important components of the food web, particularly in aquatic environments. However, the distribution and status of many species in this coal region are relatively unknown; surveys and research are ongoing to document, conserve, and manage reptile and amphibian species in the region (CDW, 2001). In Wyoming, the heart of this coal region, there are 11 species of amphibians (WGFD, 2005). Common aquatic species in the coal region’s largest coal area, the Powder River Basin, include Woodhouse’s toad (Bufo woodhousii), the northern leopard frog (Rana pipiens), the tiger salamander (Ambystoma tigrinum), and the boreal chorus frog (Pseudacris maculata) (WGFD, 2005). The invasive bull frog (Rana catesbeiana) is negatively influencing native species, and has become well established throughout the coal region, competing for resources and habitat (Stoddard et al., 2005). Turtle diversity is low in this coal region; in Wyoming, the heart of the
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coal region, there are 4 species of turtles, 3 of which are aquatic, the western spiny softshell (Apalone spinifera hartwegi), the western painted turtle (Chrysemys picta bellii), and the snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina) (Cerovski et al., 2004). The fish assemblages the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region are diverse, as they include both cold- and warm-water species. However, these assemblages have been heavily impacted by the introduction of non-native fish species and loss of habitat due to stream alteration and damming. Rivers reaching the Pacific Ocean historically had large runs of salmon and trout, including pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha), Chinook salmon (O. tshawytscha), Coho salmon (O. kisutch), and cutthroat trout (O. clarkii) (EPA, 2006). Non-native fishes were and are stocked as sport fish; the most common non-native species currently reported in the coal region are brown trout (Salmo trutta), brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), common carp (Cyprinus carpio), smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu), green sunfish (Lepomis cyanellus), and largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) (Stoddard et al., 2005). Other notable introduced species to the coal region include northern pike (Esox lucius), yellow perch (Perca flavescens), rock bass (Ambloplites rupestris), northern plains killifish (Fundulus kansae), and bullhead catfishes (Ameiurus spp.). Fish diversity can be high at sites in this coal region. In a recent fisheries survey in the Powder River Basin, an area that contains both cold- and warm-water habitats, 36 species were identified, but only 17 of them were native (Peterson et al., 2009). The most abundant species in that Powder River Basin study, in order of relative abundance, were fathead minnows (Pimephalesn promelas), smallmouth bass, sand shiners (Notropis stramineus), rock bass, white suckers (Catastomus commersonii), common carp, green sunfish, and the shorthead redhorse (Maxostoma macrolepidotum). Fish assemblages in the coal region change in composition from the cooler waters of headwater and mountain streams to the warmer waters of lower sloped streams of the plains. These communities change from larger percentages of mountain sucker, white sucker, northern plains killifish, and longnose dace at sites farthest upstream to larger percentages of channel catfish, stonecat, river carpsucker, and goldeye at the sites farthest downstream (Peterson et al., 2009). 3.12.5.3.2 Lentic Systems 3.12.5.3.2.1 Habitat In the Great Plains area there are glacial pothole lakes and ponds, along with many manmade impoundments and farm ponds. In the more mountainous areas of the coal region, reservoir lakes, such as Holter Lake and Canyon Ferry Lake are the main lentic systems, while smaller natural alpine lakes occur in glaciated terrain, as well as in high elevation cirques and basins (McNab and Avers, 1994). In the more arid areas of the coal region, some drainages lack outlets, producing temporary saline ponds and saline lakes (USACE, 2010). 3.12.5.3.2.2 Energy Flow/Primary Production

Allochthonous carbon sources are important to the lentic systems in this coal region. Litterfall from the surrounding forests of spruce, fir, hemlock, pine, Douglas fir, aspen, and cottonwood provides the major food supply for many invertebrate consumers. Since the arid climate and fluctuating precipitation throughout the year can cause variability in the shorelines of lakes and
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ponds, it can greatly reduce the amount of macrophytes present in some lentic systems. However, other lentic systems with perennial sources of water from streams and springs can provide habitat for the development and establishment of macrophyte communities. In the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains, the littoral zone generally extends from the depth of rooted plant growth, usually 15 to 25 feet deep, as submersed plants generally do not grow below a depth of 30 feet due to light and pressure limitations (O'Neal and Soulliere, 2006). Aquatic macrophytes are responsible for a significant portion of the primary production for the lake systems (Ozimek et al., 1990; Wetzel, 2001).The macrophytes species present in lentic systems within the coal region do not generally differ from those that are known to occur in lotic systems. 3.12.5.3.2.3 Invertebrates

The invertebrates that are common in the lentic systems of the coal region do not generally differ from those that occur in the lotic systems of the coal region described above. 3.12.5.3.2.4 Vertebrates

As mention previously, this coal region has relatively low diversity of reptiles and amphibians because of the mostly cold and short growing seasons that give reptiles and amphibians little time and energy to complete their life cycle (Crowder et al., 2010). Amphibians found in natural alpine lakes are particularly impacted by introduced fish species that compete with amphibians for aquatic insects. In the lentic systems of this coal region, fish assemblages generally include species similar to the lotic systems as described above. The reservoirs communities of the region shift to larger percentages of centrachids, such as largemouth and smallmouth bass, white and black crappie (Pomoxis annularis and P. nigromaculatus), and bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus), and other games species, such as walleye (Stizostedion vitreum), northern pike, yellow perch, wiper (Morone chrysops x M. saxatilis), and channel catfish, in addition to trout and salmon species (CDW, 2009). The non-native species state agencies stock into lentic systems, commonly move into lotic systems; threats to native fish assemblages remain from the introduction of exotic species, loss of habitat from sedimentation, and potential overfishing in lotic and lentic systems.

3.12.6 Northwest Basin
There is only one area of active mining in the Northwest Basin coal region, located in central Alaska (Figure 3.12-7).

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Figure 3.12-7 USFS Provinces Within the Northwest Basin Coal Region

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3.12.6.1 General Ecological Setting for Northwest Coal Region The ecological province in this coal area is the Upper Yukon Tayga-Meadow Province which covers 384 square miles. 3.12.6.1.1 Upper Yukon Tayga-Meadow Province This province is composed of rounded low mountains rising to 2,000-4,000 ft (600-1,200 m) in altitude, along with plateaus and highlands of rolling topography and gentle slopes interspersed with frequent valleys. The province is made up of outwash fans and floodplains of the Chandalar, Christian, Sheenjek, and Upper Yukon rivers. The area is a relatively flat, marshy basin patterned by braided and meandering streams, numerous thaw and oxbow lakes, and meander scars. Surface water in streams, lakes, and bogs is usually abundant. Water levels of lakes are typically not maintained by precipitation, but rather by spring flooding. Chinook, silver, and chum salmon occur in the Yukon River and its tributaries. Resident fish include northern pike, sheefish, burbot, and arctic grayling. This province is 68,400 square miles in area of which the active coal mining area in the Northwestern Coal Region encompasses only a tiny fraction. 3.12.6.2 Terrestrial Resources for Northwest Basin The Northwest coal region study area includes a small coal areas in central Alaska. Alaska ecoregion descriptions are taken from McNab and Avers (1994) and Bailey (1995). 3.12.6.2.1 Upper Yukon Tayga-Meadow Province Vegetation. The vegetation pattern in the area is complex. Forests of white spruce, paper birch, and quaking aspen cover most lower slopes in the south and south-facing slopes in the north. Black spruce forest vegetation grows at higher elevations, on all north-facing slopes in the south, on all but steep south-facing slopes in the north, and on lower slopes with impeded soil drainage throughout the area. Above the black spruce forest, the vegetation is alpine meadow characterized by sedges on poorly drained sites and by low-growing shrubs on drier sites. Fauna. Caribou and introduced bison inhabit the area, and Dall sheep are found in the high mountains. Upland furbearers, such as marten, mink, and shorttail and least weasels, are common. Hoary marmots populate mountainous areas, and woodchucks are found in the lower open woodlands. There is prime habitat for arctic ground squirrels and northern flying squirrels. The range of the longtail and yellow-cheeked voles in interior Alaska corresponds closely to this region. 3.12.6.2.2 Invasive Species Noxious weeds and invasive plants found in the Northwest coal region are listed in Appendix 3.12-D. 3.12.6.3 Aquatic Resources for Northwest Coal Region The small study area of the Northwest coal region is located in central Alaska.
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3.12.6.3.1 Lotic 3.12.6.3.1.1 Habitat A variety of flowing water habitats is present in the Northwest coal region. These include ephemeral, intermittent, low order (1st – 3rd) and higher order (4th – 6th) streams as well as rivers. According to analysis completed above in Section 3.7, it is estimated that there are a total of 290 miles of intermittent streams, 1,500 miles of perennial streams, and 240 miles of artificial channel in the coal region. A more detailed discussion about the general habitat features of these different types of streams is presented in Appendix 3.12-B. Freshwater resources are spread throughout the states in the Northwest coal region and provide a wide range of habitat types. Glaciers feed and influence nearly all rivers in Alaska and are the headwaters to some of the largest rivers (ADFG, 2006). There are generally five stream types in Alaska including mountain-spring, tundra-spring, tundra, mountain, and glacier. All of the stream types are found in the coal-bearing ecological provinces in Alaska. Stream and riverbed substrates in Alaska vary from large boulders to glacial silt, clay, and mud. Larger substrates provide greater surface are for aquatic invertebrates and for establishment of algae and mosses. The boulder and cobble substrates are typically found in the upper watershed while mud, silt, and clay substrates are found lower in the watershed at or near the terminus of a waterway (ADFG, 2006). Mountain streams are cold (less than 10 degrees Celsius) and flow for about five months. Flows in these streams are derived from springs and surface runoff from melting snow and ice. Silt load varies with flow and is highest during the spring flooding events. Mountain streams are moderately hard-water streams with a predominance of calcium ions. Tundra streams tend to be small meandering streams, and they flow for about 3.5 to 4.5 months out of the year. Many tundra streams are beaded streams. As with mountain streams, the flow patterns of tundra streams tend to fluctuate with spring flooding. Waters in these streams are stained yellow to brown in color, and have a lower pH, lower conductance, and lower concentrations of calcium than found in mountain or spring streams. Summer water temperatures may exceed 16 degrees Celsius. Tundra streams contain high concentrations of dissolved organic carbon. The catchments of tundra streams, unlike mountain streams, are composed of peat underlain by an aquaclude formed by permafrost. Both mountain and tundra streams have peak flows during spring and early summer and low flows during late summer. According to studies reviewed by Huryn et al. (2005), runoff ceases, channel volume is reduced, and the water column freezes at the onset of winter, although open water may persist in deep pools (greater than 2 meters) or regions of upwelling ground water. Spring streams are small spring-fed tributaries with temperatures of 3 to 7 degrees Celsius although thermal and mineral springs do occur. The springs are perennial and provide the only source of winter flow. As these streams are relatively stable, stream banks are often overgrown with vegetation and the streambed is covered in most places with a heavy growth of moss or algae. Turbidity and suspended sediment levels are low in spring streams (Craig and McCart, 1975) According to studies reviewed by Oswood et al. (1989), beaded tundra streams are common in arctic Alaska, from the foothills to the coastal plain where there are ice-rich, perennially frozen, and fine-grained sediments a few decimeters to a meter below tundra vegetation. Beaded
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streams contain pools and are connected by narrow channels. Beaded streams are considered the most characteristic of high-latitude lotic habitats. Peat dominates pool and channel substrate materials with occasional rock and moss substrates (Oswood et al., 1989). A study by Swanson et al. (1988) indicated that beaded streams are formed by the thermal erosion of ice-rich substrates and have both lentic and lotic characteristics. At low flow, pools thermally stratify with very high surface water temperatures and very low water velocities. Streams of arctic Alaska vary both in both physical and hydrological aspects (Craig and McCart, 1975; Huryn et al., 2005), which results in a wide range of disturbance regimes. Differences in disturbance regime between mountain streams and perennial spring streams have been shown to result in large differences in biological communities (Parker and Huryn, 2006). Some species cope with these disturbances while some will develop in winter to avoid disturbance related to flood events (Danks, 2007). Streams with outlets to lakes have different temperature regimes and fauna (Hieber et al., 2002). A study comparing food web structure and function of a mountain stream and a spring stream by Parker and Huryn (2006) indicated that macroinvertebrate taxon richness was greater in the spring stream than in the mountain stream. Further, the mean macroinvertebrate biomass was greater in the spring stream than in mountain stream indicating significant differences between these two stream types in the volume of material and energy flow between food-web nodes. Streams draining permafrost-dominated watersheds have a hydrologic regime characterized by low baseflows, but high stormflows with the onset of snowmelt or rainfall (Smidt and Oswood, 2002). This differs from streams draining permafrost-free watersheds as the absence of permafrost allows deeper infiltration of precipitation allowing greater and more sustained baseflows and reduced stormflows (Woo and Winter, 1993). A study by MacLean et al. (1999) showed that stream chemistry (dissolved organic carbon, dissolved organic nitrogen, and dissolved inorganic nitrogen) in permafrost-dominated watersheds was more closely associated with the chemistry of organic horizons in the upper soil as compared to the chemistry of streams draining permafrost-free watersheds. The water chemistry of runoff from permafrost-free soils is controlled by contact between water and mineral soils. This study showed that streams in permafrost-dominated watersheds are likely to be more sensitive to nutrient inputs than those in permafrost-free watersheds. Material transport of dissolved materials into streams from surrounding terrestrial landscapes can have a significant influence on the ecology of stream organisms (MacLean et al., 1999). 3.12.6.3.1.2 Energy Sources, and Primary Production

Food webs in arctic Alaska are functionally seasonal and there is essentially no dependence on riparian vegetation, therefore, food webs are driven by primary production during the short summer and by old carbon from peat bogs during the long winter (Oswood et al., 2000). A study conducted by Peterson et al. (1993) on a tundra river on the north slope of Alaska found that the rocky cobble bottom of the river was colonized by filamentous algae, diatoms, and bacteria. Large amounts of organic matter were found to enter the river from peat eroding from the river banks and from dissolved organic matter leaching from the tundra landscape. Allochthonous organic matter inputs far outweighed autochthonous production of epilithic algae (Peterson et al., 1986). While allochthonous peat and dissolved organic matter strongly dominated the carbon
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cycle (Peterson et al., 1986), all trophic levels of the riverine food web were found to be highly responsive to fertilization by phosphorus and nitrogen which primarily stimulated epilithic diatoms and filamentous algae. A study by Huryn et al. (2005) identified 120 periphyton taxa from 24 streams on the northern slope of Alaska. Diatoms were found to be widespread; filamentous cyanobacteria were also observed. 3.12.6.3.1.3 Invertebrates

Typical freshwater invertebrates found in or associated with Alaskan lotic systems include those of the Tricorythidae (mayflies), Amphipoda (malacostracan crustaceans), Rhyacophilidae and Systellognatha (stoneflies), Elmidae (riffle beetles), Hydroptilidae (micro-caddisflies), Brachycentridae (caddisflies), Oligochaeta (worms) (Corkum, 1989), and Chironomidae (Smidt and Oswood, 2003). Less common or rare invertebrates include, but are not limited to, Baetidae and Caenidae (mayflies), Capniidae and Perlodidae (stoneflies), and Margaritiferidae and Unionidae (freshwater mussels) (Alaska Natural Heritage Program, 2010). According to Alaska’s Comprehensive Wildlife Strategy (ADFG, 2006) invertebrate species associated with clearwater river/streams include, but are not limited to, stoneflies (Plecoptera), mayflies (Ephemeroptera), caddisflies (Trichoptera), freshwater clams (Pelecypoda), and Yukon floater mussel (Anodonata beringiana). Diversity and abundance of benthic invertebrates in Alaska’s tundra streams are higher than in mountain streams but less than in spring streams (Craig and McCart, 1975). Spring streams contain the greatest diversity of benthic invertebrates, and high densities of benthic invertebrates (10,000 organisms/square meter) occur in these streams (Craig and McCart, 1975). A study conducted by Huryn et al. (2005) found that macroinvertebrate community structure was distinct among stream categories. For instance, tundra streams had significantly greater filter feeder biomass than the other stream types, and filter feeders were absent from glacial streams. In mountain streams, predator biomass was greater than any other stream types where Perlodid stoneflies (Arcynopteryx compacta and Isoperla sobria) contributed an average of 87 percent to predator biomass. 3.12.6.3.1.4 Vertebrates

Reptiles and amphibians are of minimal importance in the freshwater aquatic systems in Alaska. The fish with perhaps the greatest biologic and economic importance in the Northwest coal region are the salmonid species which include salmon, trout, char, grayling, and whitefish. Salmonids require relatively cold freshwater habitats with high water quality and diverse habitat to complete all stages of their life cycle. Salmon typically use large stream and river systems but can also be found in smaller coastal streams (BLM, 2008). Salmonids are anadromous; their life cycle includes spawning and early development in freshwater systems and foraging activities in the ocean. According to studies reviewed by Oswood et al. (2000), fish faunas vary from the Arctic region to the panhandle of southeast Alaska due to ecological differences over the latitudinal and marine-continental gradients of Alaska. Combined high latitude and high elevation attributes of
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the high mountains of Alaska create barriers to fish exchanges across headwater divides which may result in the greater differences in fish faunas compared to regions separated by low mountains and lowlands (Oswood et al., 2000). During the winter, the headwater streams of the Brooks Range and Alaska Range mountains can be either partially or completely dewatered and covered with ice, forcing fishes to migrate to suitable overwintering areas downstream (Oswood et al. 2000). Loss of winter habitat from substratum freezing requires that most fish migrate out to sea or move to suitable overwintering locations, which are primarily perennially flowing springs. Based on a study conducted by Craig and McCart (1975), during the summer, mountain streams have low biological productivity compared to tundra streams and spring-fed streams. In mountain and spring streams, arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) are commonly found, and grayling (Thymallus arcticus) also occur (Craig and McCart, 1975). Tundra streams are used as spawning and rearing grounds by grayling (Craig and McCart, 1975). Other fish species found in arctic streams included round whitefish (Prosopium cylindraceum), slimy sculpin (Cottus cognatus), and ninespine stickleback (Pungitius pungitius) (Craig and McCart, 1975). According to Alaska’s Comprehensive Wildlife Strategy (ADFG, 2006), fish species associated with glacial river/streams (as defined further above) include rainbow smelt (Osmerus mordax), eulachon (Thaleichthys pacificus), longfin smelt (Spirinchus thaleichthys), and pygmy whitefish (Prosopium coulteri). Species associated with clearwater river/stream include, but are not limited to, Alaska blackfish (Dallia pectoralis), arctic lamprey (Lampetra camtschatica), broad whitefish (Coregonus nasus), and ninespine stickleback (Pungitius pungitius). An endemic species found in the Yukon River includes the trout-perch (Percopsis omiscomaycus). A study conducted by Adams et al. (1993) at two refuges on the Alaska Peninsula (Bering Tundra Province) found that length, weight, and age characteristics of chum (Oncorhynchus keta), coho (Oncorhynchus kisutch), and sockeye salmon, and Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus) from the study area generally exhibit similar characteristics to other Alaska populations. This study also found that tundra streams exhibited greater fish species diversity than upland streams, and that the mean lengths of juvenile coho salmon captured from tundra streams were greater than those captured from upland streams. 3.12.6.3.2 Lentic According to Alaska’s Comprehensive Wildlife Strategy (ADFG, 2006), Alaska has more than 3 million lakes greater than 5 acres in size many of which are distributed in the coal region. Lakes are defined by the Comprehensive Wildlife Strategy (ADFG, 2006) as either glacier influenced or clearwater lakes. Lakes form in glaciers dominated watersheds as a result of advance and retreat of the glaciers. Lakes can also form as a result of glaciers flowing across tributary valleys and trapping runoff. Most of the state’s lakes are glacially formed, particularly those in the southwest and south-central portions of the state. Glacial lakes are important to both resident and anadromous fishes for overwintering. Clearwater lakes have can have surface or groundwater sources, or both. Clearwater lake water levels, thermal regimes, and chemical composition are determined by flow regime, groundwater source, and connectivity. Alaska has many isolated lakes with no surface water connection; examples include lakes/ponds of thermokarst, fluvial, and volcanic origin. Subsurface flows may still exist with isolated
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lakes/ponds such as through underlying permafrost. Isolated lakes/ponds tend to have unique biological assemblages; however, most isolated lakes/ponds provide the same functions as nonisolated systems (ADFG, 2006). 3.12.6.3.2.1 Energy Sources and Primary Production

Photosynthetic carbon fixation by phytoplankton and bacteria has been demonstrated to represent the major part of the organic production in Alaskan lakes; chemosynthetic productivity is of secondary importance (Goldman, 1960). Changes and differences in productivity may influence the rate of accumulation of organic matter in successive trophic levels (Goldman, 1960). A study conducted by Goldman (1960) of primary productivity in Naknek Lake, Brooks Lake, and Lake Becharof on the Alaska Peninsula found that primary productivity per unit volume at comparable depths consistently increased towards the tributary end of the lake and that magnesium was a limiting factor for phytoplankton production throughout the summer. Seasonal changes in the total phytoplankton at Brooks Lake supported the relationship between standing crop and rate of production estimates for major changes in productivity during a season, although it was noted in this study that standing crop measurements would give very unreliable values for the rate of production if nutrient or other factors are limiting. Diatoms were the dominant algal phylum followed by green algae (Goldman, 1960). According to studies reviewed by Pfauth and Sytsma (2005), native aquatic plants found in lentic systems in Alaska include 15 species of pondweed (Potamogeton spp.), two species of water milfoil (Myriophyllum spp.), as well as duckweeds (Lemna spp.), and bladderworts (Utricularia spp.). Recent surveys conducted by Pfauth and Sytsma (2005) of submersed and floating-leaved aquatic plants in southern (Kenai Peninsula) and central (near Telin National Wildlife Refuge) portions of Alaska found a total of 33 aquatic plant species including one macro-alga, one liverwort, and two aquatic mosses. Non-native, aquatic plant species were not discovered during this survey. 3.12.6.3.2.2 Invertebrates

Further, small invertebrates associated with lakes and ponds differ from those found in streams and rivers. Lake/pond dwelling insects or benthic invertebrates live in the bottom sediments or aquatic plants and are an important food source for fish. Invertebrate species commonly associated with lakes/ponds in Alaska include, but are not limited to, dragonflies (suborder Anisoptera), damselflies (Suborder Zygoptera), mayflies, water fleas (Daphnia spp.), and bivalve mollusks such as the Yukon floater. Water fleas are the dominant plankton found in freshwater habitats and are an important food source for fish and predatory insects. The invertebrates of the Northwest Coal Region do not greatly differ between lotic and lentic aquatic systems. Common aquatic invertebrates in the region include mayfly, stonefly nymphs, caddisfly larvae, Riffle beetles, fly larvae, aquatic worms, roundworms, freshwater earthworms, amphipods, and mollusks (Alaska Natural Heritage Program, 2010; USEPA, 2010). However, invertebrates more common in lentic systems than lotic include benthic invertebrates such as dragonfly and damselfly larvae, mayfly nymphs, water fleas (Daphnia spp.), and some bivalve mollusks such as the Yukon floater.

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3.12.6.3.2.3

Vertebrates

There are only six native species of amphibians in Alaska that have an association with lotic systems, but these species are also found in lentic systems. They include the northwestern salamander (Ambystoma gracile), long-toed salamander, roughskin newt (Taricha granulosa), Columbia spotted frog (Rana luteiventris), wood frog, and western toad. Only two of these species, the wood frog and western toad, have a distribution documented outside of southeast Alaska. (Southeast Alaska is not a part of the Northwest coal region.) The wood frog is widely distributed throughout Alaska and is the only amphibian found above the Arctic Circle (Alaska Natural Heritage Program, 2002). The western toad, Alaska’s only toad species, has a recorded distribution from southeast Alaska along the mainland coast to Prince William Sound (ADFG, 2006). Non-native species associated with aquatic environments (both lotic and lentic) that are known to occur in Alaska include the Pacific chorus frog (Pseudacris regilla) which breeds in slow-moving streams as well as marshes, lakes, ponds; and the red-legged frog (Rana aurora) whose habitat includes quiet permanent waters of streams, marshes or ponds (McClory and Gotthardt, 2008; ADFG, 2006; Alaska Natural Heritage Program, 2002). A study conducted by Hemming et al. (1989) found that flooded gravel mine sites created for oil development in the Prudhoe Bay - Kuparuk oilfields (northern Alaska) provide suitable overwintering habitat for several species of freshwater and anadromous fish as these sites retain large quantities of water with dissolved oxygen concentrations that are at or near saturation throughout the year. The flooded gravel mine sites are cold monomictic lakes that either mix continuously during the ice-free season or form weak thermoclines. The Hemming et al. (1989) study found that colonization of flooded gravel mine sites by fish is governed by the permanence of the connection to a stream. A total of 1,636 fish were captured during the study which included 605 arctic grayling. Other fish caught included round whitefish (Prosopium cylindraceum) (30 percent), broad whitefish (Coregonus nasus) (8 percent), and Dolly Varden char, burbot (Lota lota), slimy sculpin (Cottus cognatus), and ninespine stickleback (Pungitius pungitius) which made up less than 1 percent of the total catch. The Hemming et al. (1989) study found that 77 percent of all fish were captured in a shallow water area of the mine site as water temperatures in the shallow water area of the mine site influenced the distribution of fish, particularly small fish.

3.12.7 Other Western Interior Coal Region
The Other Western Interior Coal Region is described by three coal basins, the Arkoma, the Cherokee and the Forest City Basins (USEPA, 2004). The counties with active mines in these three coal basins are distributed in four states including Arkansas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Missouri (Figure 3.12-8).

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Figure 3.12-8 USFS Provinces Within the Other Western Interior Coal Region

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3.12.7.1 General Ecological Setting A wide variety of habitat types are distributed in this coal region because of the geographic extent and climatic extremes represented within the coal region. The Other Western Interior Coal Region is largely located in the climate of the Humid Temperate Domain, an area governed by both tropical and polar air masses, with strong annual cycles of temperature and precipitation, causing seasonal fluctuation of energy and temperature that is greater than the diurnal fluctuation (Bailey, 1995). Table 3.12-9 lists the ecological provinces located in this coal region and the area of each province which is distributed within the coal region. Table 3.12-9 USFS Provinces Associated with the Other Western Interior Coal Region Ecological Province Central Interior Broadleaf Forest Ouachita Mixed Forest-Meadow Prairie Parkland (Subtropical) Prairie Parkland (Temperate) Southeastern Mixed Forest Area of Coal Region in Province (sq mi) 24 575 1652 2469 1137

The general province descriptions provided below for the ecological provinces distributed within the Other Western Interior Coal Region come from McNab (2007), Cleland et al (1997), and USDA-USFS (1993). 3.12.7.1.1 Central Interior Broadleaf Forest A description of the Central Interior Broadleaf Forest Province is presented above in Section. The Other Western Interior Coal Region encompasses only a tiny fraction of this 119,790 square mile province. 3.12.7.1.2 Prairie Parkland (Subtropical) A description of the Prairie Parkland (Subtropical) province is presented above in Section 3.12.3. The Other Western Interior coal region encompasses a small portion of this 95165 square mile province.

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3.12.7.1.3 Prairie Parkland (Temperate) A description of the Prairie Parkland (Temperate) province is presented above in Section 3.12.4. Approximately 3% of the total area occupied by this 95,165 square mile province in the U.S. is distributed within the coal counties of the Other Western Interior coal region with active mines. 3.12.7.1.4 Ouachita Mixed Forest – Meadow A description of the Ouachita Mixed Forest-Meadow province is presented above in Section 3.12.3. The Other Western Interior coal region encompasses only a tiny fraction of the land within this 11,177 square mile province. 3.12.7.1.5 Southeastern Mixed Forest A description of the Southeastern Mixed Forest province is presented above in Section 3.12.1. The Other Western Interior coal region encompasses only a tiny fraction of this 181,556 square mile province. 3.12.7.2 Terrestrial Resources The Other Western Interior coal region study area includes several different terrestrial habits within the central United States, within the states of Kansas, Missouri, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. Except as noted, all of the ecoregion descriptions and vegetation cover type descriptions below are taken from McNab, et al. (2007). The study area of this coal region in Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahomaegion is generally characterized by agricultural land interspersed with oak-hickory and prairie cover types, with elm-ash-cottonwood cover types. Near its southern limits, the coal region crosses several different provinces. The Prairie Parkland (Subtropical) Province is located in Oklahoma and is characterized by oak-hickory and Great Plains grasslands cover types. The Central Interior Broadleaf Forest Province is located in Missouri and Oklahoma and consists of oak-hickory and oak-pine cover types. The Ozark Broadleaf Forest-Meadow Province is located in Oklahoma and consists of oak-hickory and oakpine cover types. The Southeastern Mixed Forest Province is located in Oklahoma and Arkansas and consists of oak-hickory, oak-pine, and loblolly-shortleaf pine cover types. The Ouachita Mixed Forest-Meadow Province is located within Oklahoma and Arkansas and consists of loblolly-shortleaf pine, oak-pine, and oak-hickory cover types. 3.12.7.2.1 Oak-Hickory Cover Type A description of the Oak-Hickory Cover type is included above in Section 3.12.1. 3.12.7.2.2 Oak-Pine Cover Type A summary of the Oak-Pine Cover type is included above in Section 3.12.1. 3.12.7.2.3 Prairie Cover Type A summary of the Prairie Cover type is included above in Section 3.12.3
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3.12.7.2.4 Great Plains Grasslands Cover Type A summary of the Great Plains Grasslands Cover type is included above in Section 3.12.2 3.12.7.2.5 Loblolly-Shortleaf Cover Type A summary of the Loblolly-Shortleaf Cover type is included above in Section 3.12.1 3.12.7.2.6 Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Cover Type A summary of the Elm-Ash-Cottonwood Cover type is included above in Section 3.12.4 3.12.7.2.7 Invasive Species Noxious weeds and invasive plants found in the Other Western Interior coal basin are listed in Appendix 3.12-D. 3.12.7.3 Aquatic Resources for the Other Western Interior Coal Region The Other Western Interior Coal Region is very ecologically diverse. Major rivers such as the Missouri River, Mississippi River, Arkansas River, Canadian River, Red River, Brazos River, and the Pecos River drain portions of the coal region. It should be noted that most of the coal in the Other Western Interior Coal Region is currently mined in eastern Oklahoma and Kansas, and western Arkansas and Missouri. 3.12.7.3.1 Lotic Systems 3.12.7.3.1.1 Habitat A variety of flowing water habitats is present in the Other Western Interior coal region. These include ephemeral, intermittent, low order (1st – 3rd) and higher order (4th – 6th) streams as well as rivers. According to analysis completed for Section 3.7, it is estimated that there are a total of 86,310miles of intermittent streams, 35,380 miles of perennial streams, and 6,240 miles of artificial channels in the coal region. A more detailed discussion about the general habitat features of these different types of streams is presented in Appendix 3.12-B. Lotic systems in the Other Western Interior Coal Region are diverse, ranging from perennial spring-fed mountain streams to ephemeral desert streams. Rivers that exist in the plains prairies, which exist sporadically throughout the Prairie Parkland provinces and constitute a majority of the areas that are used for coal mining, start from prairie potholes and springs and are commonly ephemeral. These prairie rivers carry large volumes of fine sediments and tend to be turbid, wide, and shallow. Major rivers in the coal region include the Arkansas River, Missouri River, and Red River. The large rivers within the coal region historically experienced spikes in flows during the spring and early summer, which enabled sediment to be transported and deposited, and for channels to meander and migrate. Anthropogenic manipulations of these river systems have reduced natural flows and affected the system processes. Rivers in this area have been heavily impacted by channelization, flow controls, such as dikes and levees that restrict natural channels, and by the construction of dams that have altered many natural riverine processes, such as sediment transportation and annual flooding. Agricultural activities have also impacted streams, such as sedimentation and eutrophication. The leading
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stress indicators in lotic systems of the coal region include total nitrogen, riparian disturbance, and the reduction of in-stream fish habitat and riparian vegetative cover (USEPA, 2006). The rivers and streams of the Other Western Interior Coal Region are affected by the surrounding land uses. Nutrient loading in this coal basin has become a major concern of the state environmental agencies due to the rapid growth of agricultural activities (Haggard et al., 2001). Anthropogenic sources of P and N include sewage, agricultural runoff, lawn fertilizers, pet wastes, and atmospheric pollution (Dodson, 2005). 3.12.7.3.1.2 Energy Flow/Primary Production

A major unit of primary production in the Other Interior Coal Region is algal biomass, consisting of cyanobacteria, filamentous chlorophytes, halophilic diatoms, and diatoms. Common algal species include attached and floating filamentous species; however, phytoplankton is typically sparse (Power and Stewart 1987). In heavily shaded mountain and canyon streams, light availability can be the overriding factor controlling the algal biomass and primary production, even in the presence of high nutrient concentrations (Mosisch et al., 2001). In mountainous areas, concentrations of chlorophyll a have been found to be generally small, indicating a relatively small amount of algal biomass in riffles (Peterson et al., 2009). In these areas, there can be an increased reliance on non-algal macrophytes and allochthonous sources for energy input for lotic systems. In mountainous areas, non-algal macrophytes, such as bryophytes (liverworts, hornworts, and mosses), and emergent and aquatic vascular plants (e.g. sedges, rushes, grasses and shrubs) are important to the primary production of the aquatic system for habitat and autochthonous energy input. Trees are typically the main source of woody debris and leaf pack material, except the plains, where herbaceous plants and shrubs are a major component. Broadleaf cover types are typical of the coal region, consisting of common species of oak (Quercus spp.), hickory (Carya spp.), hackberry (Celtis sp.), rough-leafed dogwood (Cornis drummondi) and sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), which line the stream banks in the region (Power and Stewart, 1987). Common aquatic invasive plant species in this coal region include hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata), Nepalese browntop (Microstegium), and purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) (CAPS, 2010). 3.12.7.3.1.3 Invertebrates

Common insect orders found in streams in the Other Western Interior Coal Region include midges, mosquitoes, blackflies, and craneflies (Chironomidae); mayflies (Ephemeroptera); caddisflies (Tricoptera); stoneflies (Plecoptera); beetles (Coleoptera); and damselflies and dragon flies (Odonata); springtails (Collembolan); water boatmen, water scorpions, pondskaters, and water striders (Hemiptera); and alderflies, dobsonflies and fishflies (Megaloptera) (TNC, 2010). A large number of these insects shred and scrape decaying organic material, which aid in the assimilation of allochthonous inputs to the aquatic system (Dodson, 2005). Many aquatic insects are predatory, and actively feed on smaller insects and other invertebrates. Non-insect invertebrates also common to lotic systems in the coal region include megadrile and microdrile worms (Oligochaeta); haplotaxid worms (Haplotaxida); water fleas (Cladocera); copepods (Copepoda); isopods (Isopoda); amphipods (Amphipoda); crayfish (Decapoda); arachnids (Acari); and snails (Basommatophora) (TNC, 2010).
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Another invertebrate group that is important to the region is freshwater mussels. Although not as specious as in the Appalachian Coal Region, the mussel fauna in the Other Western Interior Coal Region has a relatively sizeable mussel fauna. Common species include the three-ridge (Amblema plicata), the pistolgrip (Tritogonia verrucosa), the plain pocketbook (Lampsilis cardium), and the pigtoe (Fusconaia flava) (Spooner and Vaughn, 2007). Unionid mussels often constitute the highest percentage of biomass relative to other benthic stream animals; therefore, they are a key link in the food chain between aquatic microorganisms, such as algae and bacteria, and large animals like otter, turtles, fish, and hellbenders that eat unionids (Badra, 2005). Mussel populations have declined in recent decades to become the most imperiled group in North America because of siltation, pollution, and competition from exotic mollusks like the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) (Warren, 1995). Crayfish are another relatively common freshwater invertebrate that inhabit very diverse niches that include small streams, large rivers, lakes, and even subterranean environments (Fetzner, 1996). Like freshwater mussels, crayfish are abundantly diverse in the Other Western Interior Coal Region. Arkansas is home to 61 species, while 28 species are known to occur in Oklahoma, 11 species in Kansas, and 32 species in Missouri, (Fetzner, 2010). These species represent one of the largest aquatic faunal groups in North America north of Mexico, but are so poorly known that over half of them do not have common names (Butler et al., 2003). However, crayfish have significant roles in aquatic ecosystems, and are a major component of the food web. They are omnivorous and process organic matter in addition to feeding on snails, small fish, and aquatic insects; they transform energy between different levels in the food chain, and are themselves eaten by more than 240 predators (Butler et al., 2003). 3.12.7.3.1.4 Vertebrates

Amphibians, such as frogs, toads, and salamanders, account for a considerable portion of energy flow in an ecosystem because they are abundant and ectothermic, and ingested energy is efficiently transferred to other trophic levels in the food web (Pough, 1980; Regester et al., 2005). Some of the more common amphibian species in the areas of concentrated mining include the bullfrog (Rana catesbeiana), the southern leopard frog (Rana sphenocephala), the green frog (Lithobates clamitans), the pickerel frog (Lithobates palustris), the Red River mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus louisianensis), the central newt (Notophthalmus viridescens louisianensis), and the western slimy salamander (Plethodon albagula) (AHS, 2010). The reptiles species associated with lotic systems vary greatly across this coal region. Reptiles common to aquatic ecosystems in areas of the coal region where mining is currently conducted include species such as the western cottonmouth (Agkistrodon piscivorus leucostoma), the plainbellied watersnake (Nerodia erythrogaster), the midland watersnake (Nerodia sipedon pleuralis), the snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina), the Ouachita map turtle (Graptemys ouachitensis ouachitensis), the eastern river cooter (Pseudemys concinna concinna), the red-eared slider (Trachemys scripta elegans), and the spiny softshell (Apalone spinifera) (AHS, 2010). Ectothermic reptiles’ ingested energy is efficiently transferred to other trophic levels in the food web. Aquatic turtles, that are known to survive from 40 to 70 years, remain an important part of the aquatic system foodwebs for long period of time (IDNR, 2010).
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Due to the wide variation of environments in the Other Western Interior Coal Region, there is a high diversity of fishes. The lotic systems of the coal region range from spring-fed headwater streams to the main stem of the Missouri River. The prairie region alone is known to contain over 75 species of fish (TNC, 2010). Most of the coal region is characterized by fish assemblages, or groups, including two common orders, Siluriformes, the catfishes, and Perciformes, which contains the fish families of Centrarchidae and Percidae. Common Centrarchids in the region include largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides), orange-spotted sunfish (Lepomis humilis), bluegill (L. macrochirus), longear sunfish (L. megalotis), green sunfish (L. cyanellus), and crappie (Pomoxis annularis) (Stevenson et al., 1974). Common Percids include the orangethroat darters (Etheostoma spectabile), logperch (Percina caprodes), and slenderhead darters (Percina phoxocephala) (Stevenson et al., 1974). Common catfishes include black and yellow bullhead catfish (Ictalurus melas and I. natalis), and channel catfish (I. punctatus). Fish assemblages are variable across the basin depending on stream type and climate; however, there is a lot of species overlap between stream types with similar ecoregions, and the assemblage descriptions below represent common assemblages from areas currently targeted for coal production. In most of the coal region, such as prairie and plains provinces, shallowly entrenched, slowflowing, meandering streams are the most common stream type. Fish assemblages in this stream type are commonly minnow dominated, including species such as the golden shiner (Notemigonus crysoleucas), redfin shiner (Lythrurus umbratilis), suckermouth minnow (Phenacobius mirabilis), sand shiner (Notropis stramineus), and fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) (Pflieger, 1975). Other species of nongame fish common to the slow flowing, meandering stream type are gizzard shad (Dorosoma cepedianum), carp (Cyprinus carpio), stonecat (Noturus flavus), black bullhead catfish, channel catfish, and flathead catfish (Pylodictis olivaris) (Pflieger, 1975). In addition to largemouth bass, other game fish such as smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu), white bass (Morone chrysops), and freshwater drum (Aplodinotus grunniens) are also common to this type of stream in the coal region. In addition to the meandering stream species, the main stems of the major rivers in the coal region include additional species indicative of larger lentic systems. These big river species include the chestnut lamprey (Ichthyomyzon castaneus), shovelnose sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus platorynchus), pallid sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus albus), paddlefish (Polyodon spathula), skipjack herring (Alosa chrysochloris), goldeye (Hiodon alosoides), blue sucker (Cycleptus elongatus), and blue catfish (Ictalurus furcatus) (Pflieger, 1975). Throughout the Mississippi, Missouri, and Arkansas River systems, invasive bighead (Hypophthalmichthys nobilis) and silver carp (H. molitrix) compete with native species for resources, particularly zooplankton and phytoplankton (USGS, 2003). Spring-fed or upland clear, rocky streams are typically cool-water streams that are typically found in the upper reaches of watersheds. They are present across this coal region, but are more commonly found in the Ouachita Mixed Forest-Meadow province. Like meandering streams, these cool streams are typically dominated by minnows such as the southern redbelly dace (Phoxinus erythrogaster), horny head chub (Nocomis biguttatus), rosyface shiner (Notropis rubellus), bleeding shiner (Luxilus zonatus), and striped shiner (Luxilus chrysocephalus) (Pflieger, 1975). In addition to minnows, darters are very common in these streams, widespread
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species include the orangethroat darter, the banded darter (Etheostoma zonale), the greenside darter (E. blennioides), the rainbow darter (E. caeruleum), and the fantail darter (E. flabellare). Other species common to these stream types include brook lampreys (Lampetra spp.), suckers such as the northern hog sucker (Hypentelium nigricans), black redhorse (Moxostoma duquesni), and golden redhorse (Moxostoma erythrurum), and other large species such as smallmouth bass, rock bass (Ambloplites rupestris), longear sunfish, and in larger cool streams, walleye (Sander vitreus) (Pflieger, 1975). 3.12.7.3.2 Lentic Systems 3.12.7.3.2.1 Habitat There are a relatively low number of warm water lakes and wetlands in the western portion of the Other Western Interior Coal Region due to the climate conditions and topography. In the more arid areas of the coal region, some drainages lack outlets, producing temporary saline ponds and saline lakes (USACE, 2010). However, lakes produced by prior glacial action are common in the northern portion of the coal region, and oxbow lakes and wetlands are abundant along the larger river systems, and a high number of farm ponds are distributed throughout the agricultural areas. Water reservoirs have also been constructed throughout the coal region (McNab and Avers, 1994). The abundance of agricultural land use in this coal region has attributed to eutrophic conditions in many lentic systems. In arid areas, playas are important because they store water in areas commonly subjected to drought conditions and where there are no permanent rivers or streams. Consequently, playas create an oasis-like area that provides habitat for a variety of species, especially in the more arid areas of the coal region. 3.12.7.3.2.2 Energy Flow/Primary Production

As mentioned previously, in aquatic systems, primary production is accomplished by phytoplankton, macroalgae, and vascular aquatic plants. The algae associated with lentic systems make a significant contribution to the primary productivity of the aquatic ecosystems in the Other Western Interior Coal Region (O'Neal et al., 1985). In general, productive lakes average approximately 1 gram of carbon fixed per day per square meter (Dodson, 2005). The littoral zone generally extends from the depth of rooted plant growth, usually 15 to 25 feet deep, as submersed plants generally do not grow below a depth of 30 feet due to light and pressure limitations (O'Neal and Soulliere, 2006). These plants are essential in promoting the biodiversity of an aquatic system, and are responsible for a significant portion of the primary production for the entire lentic systems (Ozimek et al., 1990; Wetzel, 2001).The aquatic plant species present in lentic systems within this coal region do not generally differ from those that are known to occur in lotic systems, however, some plants are more common to lentic systems in this coal region, such as coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum), pondweeds (Potamogeton spp.), water lily (Nuphar advena), water willow (Justicia americana), and cattail (Typha spp.). Though the woody debris and leaf litter input is not as important to lentic systems as it is to lotic systems, it remains important as an allochthonous energy component from the surrounding forests of oakhickory and mixed forest cover types. The arid climate in some areas of the region causes fluctuating precipitation throughout the year, which can cause variability in the shorelines of lakes and ponds, and can greatly reduce the amount of macrophytes present in the lentic system.
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However, lentic systems with perennial source water from streams and springs can provide habitat for the development and establishment of macrophyte communities. 3.12.7.3.2.3 Invertebrates

The invertebrates that are common in the lotic systems of the coal region do not generally differ from those that occur in the lentic systems of this coal region described above. The insects, worms, crayfish, and mussels form the base of the food web in lentic systems, and serve as a food source for other predators including fish and mammals. Common pond macroinvertebrate species include mosquitoes, blackflies, and craneflies; amphipods; damselflies and dragonflies; and beetles (Bass and Potts 2001). 3.12.7.3.2.4 Vertebrates

Reptile and amphibian species do not greatly differ between the lotic and lentic systems in this coal region. However, lentic areas are particularly import to terrestrial salamanders, who use ponds, lakes, and wetlands for reproduction and for their larval stages of life. They are an important component of the vertebrate food chain in these lentic systems, as they are abundant, and they efficiently transfer energy to other trophic levels in the food web, and are consumed by a variety of predators. Reptiles fill important roles in the lentic ecosystems of the Other Western Interior coal region. Aquatic turtles are known to survive for extended lengths of time, remaining an important part of the wetland, pond, and lake systems. They can represent a significant portion of biomass in a lentic system. In a recent study in a southern Illinois lentic system, four of the ten turtles present were found to have a biomass greater than 55 pounds per acre (Dreslik et al., 2005). Semiaquatic snake species are also important components of the food web that transfer energy between terrestrial environments and lentic environments. These snakes feed on fish, frogs, tadpoles, salamander, crayfish, and insects in wetlands, lakes, and ponds. The fish species of lentic systems of the coal region do not differ greatly from the species found in large meandering streams. Common species include largemouth bass, bluegill, crappie, bullhead catfish, channel catfish, carp, white bass, freshwater drum (Aplodinotus grunniens), and various sunfish species. However, in larger reservoirs and lakes game fish are stocked, or have been introduced such as northern pike (Esox lucius), walleye, hybrid striped bass (Morone saxatilis x M. chrysops), and wiper (Morone chrysops x M. saxatilis). The non-native species state agencies stock lentic systems, commonly move into lotic systems; threats to native fish assemblages remain from the introduction of exotic species, loss of habitat from sedimentation, and potential overfishing in lotic and lentic systems.

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3.13 PROTECTED SPECIES
3.13.0 Introduction
The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) administers a variety of laws protecting wildlife and plant species. These include the Migratory Bird Treaty Act (MBTA), the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act (BGEPA), and the Endangered Species Act (ESA). The MBTA prohibits the taking, killing, possession, and transportation of migratory birds, eggs, feathers and other body parts, and nests without a permit. Currently, the list of migratory birds protected under the MBTA includes 1,007 species (50 CFR Part 10.13). The BGEPA affords eagles further protection than the MBTA by making it unlawful to disturb eagles or destroy their nests. The ESA makes it unlawful for the take of Federally threatened or endangered species. The USFWS shares the responsibility of administering the ESA with the National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS). NMFS manages marine species that are federally threatened or endangered such as many marine mammals and anadromous fish species such as salmon and sturgeon. Federally listed threatened and endangered species known to be present in the 193 counties with active surface and underground coal mining were identified through review of appropriate state agency and USFWS databases, primarily state heritage programs. This evaluation is not intended to be a final and exhaustive analysis of all federally protected species found in areas of the U.S. with coal deposits, but rather to be representative of the range of species that may be distributed across the coal regions. For example, other counties have coal deposits that are not currently being extracted and those are not included in this evaluation. The following section discusses the Federally listed species by coal region including endangered, threatened, candidate, and proposed species, as well as birds protected under the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act. Aquatic species are bolded in this section for emphasis because they are most likely to be distributed in the stream habitats. Migratory birds are present throughout the U.S. As such, there are many bird species in the coal regions that are seasonal residents and have seasonal migrations. These birds include waterfowl, shorebirds, raptors, and neotropical songbirds. As previously mentioned, these species are protected under the MBTA. In addition, they receive protection under Executive Order 13186 (Responsibilities of Federal Agencies to Protect Migratory Birds). A discussion of birds that receive special protection under these regulations is provided in Appendix 3.13-C. Species listed as species of concern, extirpated, or recovered species are not included in this discussion. State-listed species are not included in this discussion, but are presented in Appendix 3.13-A for informational purposes. Natural communities and geological features that appear on some state lists were not included in this analysis. For several coal regions, additional discussion of the larger mammal species is included because they tend to have larger home ranges than smaller animals which may allow them to travel in and out of coal counties. Across the 193 coal counties that comprise the study area of this analysis, there is a total of 203 federally listed species (Table 3.13-1). This table presents a listing in which each protected
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species is presented only once. These species include 6 amphibians, 21 birds, 1 crustacean, 30 fish, 6 insects, 17 mammals, 71 mollusks, 6 reptiles, and 45 plants. More aquatic than terrestrial species are represented in this group. Some of these species are distributed in / reported from more than one coal region. The remainder of this section discusses the protected species in each coal region based on the information available from these representative counties. Table 3.13-1 Federally Protected Species Reported for the 193 Coal Counties with Active Mines
Scientific Name Anaxyrus houstonensis Common Name Federal Status LE C C C LT LT C BGEPA C C LT PT C LE LE DL DL C LE BGEPA LE LE LE LE LE LE LT LE C LT

Taxonomic Group Amphibians Amphibians Amphibians Amphibians Amphibians Amphibians Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Crustaceans Fish Fish

Houston toad Boreal Western Toad (S. Rocky Mtn. Bufo boreas boreas Population) Black Warrior Waterdog Necturus alabamensis Jemez Mountains salamander Plethodon neomexicanus Cheat Mountain salamander Plethodon nettingi Chiricahua Leopard Frog Rana chiricahuensis Sprague's Pipit Anthus spragueii Golden Eagle Aquila chrysaetos Kittliz's murrelet Brachyramphus brevirostris Greater Sage Grouse Centrocercus urophasianus Piping Plover Charadrius melodus Mountain Plover Charadrius montanus Yellow-billed Cuckoo Coccyzus americanus Southwestern Willow Flycatcher Empidonax traillii extimus Northern Aplomado falcon Falco femoralis septentrionalis American Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus anatum Arctic Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus tundrius Yellow-billed loon Gavia adamsii Whooping Crane Grus americana Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus Wood Stork Mycteria americana Eskimo Curlew Numenius borealis Red-cockaded Woodpecker Picoides borealis Least tern Sterna antillarum Interior Least Tern Sterna antillarum athalassos Least Tern Sternula antillarum Mexican Spotted Owl Strix occidentalis lucida Lee County Cave Isopod Lirceus usdagalun Green Sturgeon Acipenser medirostris Gulf Sturgeon Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material 3-119

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Taxonomic Group Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Insects Insects Insects Insects Insects Insects Mammals Mammals Mammals

Scientific Name Cyprinella caerulea Erimonax monachus Erimystax cahni Etheostoma chermocki Etheostoma cragini Etheostoma nuchale Etheostoma phytophilum Etheostoma sagitta Etheostoma susanae Gila cypha Gila elegans Notropis albizonatus Notropis buccula Notropis cahabae Notropis girardi Notropis oxyrhynchus Noturus flavipinnis Oncorhynchus apache Percina aurolineata Percina aurora Percina pantherina Phoxinus cumberlandensis Ptychocheilus lucius Scaphirhynchus suttkusi Thymallus arcticus Tiaroga cobitis Xyrauchen texanus Scaphirhynchus albus Boloria acrocnema Hesperia dacotae Neonympha mitchellii Nicrophorus americanus Pseudanophthalmus frigidus Somatochlora hineana Herpailurus yagouaroundi cacomitli Bison bison athabascae Canis lupus

Common Name Blue Shiner Spotfin Chub Slender Chub Vermilion Darter Arkansas Darter Watercress Darter Rush Darter Arrow Darter Cumberland Darter Humpback Chub Bonytail Palezone Shiner Smalleye shiner Cahaba Shiner Arkansas River Shiner Sharpnose shiner Yellowfin Madtom Apache Trout Goldline Darter Pearl darter Leopard Darter Blackside Dace Colorado Pikeminnow Alabama Sturgeon Arctic Grayling Loach Minnow Razorback Sucker Pallid sturgeon Uncompahgre fritillary butterfly Dakota Skipper Mitchell's Satyr American Burying Beetle Icebox Cave Beetle Hine's Emerald Gulf Coast jaguarundi Wood Bison Gray wolf

Federal Status LT LT LT LE C LE C C C LE LE LE C LE LT C LT LT LT C LT LT LE LE C LT LE LE LE C LE LE C LE LE LE LE

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Taxonomic Group Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks

Scientific Name Canis rufus Corynorhinus (=Plecotus) townsendii virginianus Cynomys gunnisoni Cynomys ludovicianus Cynomys parvidens Leopardus pardalis Lynx canadensis Mustela nigripes Myotis grisescens Myotis sodalis Ursus americanus Ursus americanus luteolus Ursus arctos Zapus hudsonius preblei Alasmidonta atropurpurea Arkansia wheeleri Athearnia anthonyi Crystallaria cincotta Cumberlandia monodonta Cyprogenia stegaria Dromus dromas Epioblasma brevidens Epioblasma capsaeformis Epioblasma florentina florentina Epioblasma florentina walkeri Epioblasma metastriata Epioblasma obliquata Epioblasma othcaloogensis Epioblasma torulosa rangiana Epioblasma torulosa torulosa Fusconaia cor Fusconaia cuneolus Fusconaia escambia Fusconaia rotulata Hamiota altilis Hamiota perovalis Hemistena lata Red wolf

Common Name

Federal Status LE LE C C LT LE LT LE LE LE LT LT LT LT LE LE LE C C LE LE LE LE LE LE LE LE LE LE LE LE LE C C LT LT LE

Virginia big-eared bat Gunnison's Prairie Dog Black-tailed Prairie Dog Utah Prairie Dog Ocelot Canada Lynx Black-footed Ferret Gray Bat Indiana Bat American Black Bear Louisiana black bear Grizzly Bear Preble's Meadow Jumping Mouse Cumberland Elktoe Ouachita Rock Pocketbook Anthony Riversnail Diamond darter Spectaclecase Fanshell Dromedary Pearlymussel Cumberlandian Combshell Oyster Mussel Yellow Blossom (pearlymussel) Tan Riffleshell Upland Combshell Purple Cat's Paw Pearlymussel Southern Acornshell Northern Riffleshell Tubercled Blossom Shiny Pigtoe Fine-rayed Pigtoe Narrow Pigtoe Round Ebonyshell Finelined Pocketbook Orangenacre Mucket Cracking pearlymussel

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Taxonomic Group Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks

Scientific Name Lampsilis abrupta Lampsilis rafinesqueana Lampsilis virescens Lemiox rimosus Leptodea leptodon Leptoxis ampla Leptoxis plicata Leptoxis taeniata Lepyrium showalteri Lexingtonia dolabelloides Lioplax cyclostomaformis Margaritifera marrianae Medionidus acutissimus Medionidus parvulus Noturus placidus Obovaria retusa Pegias fabula Plethobasus cicatricosus Plethobasus cooperianus Plethobasus cyphyus Pleurobema clava Pleurobema decisum Pleurobema furvum Pleurobema georgianum Pleurobema perovatum Pleurobema plenum Pleurobema rubellum Pleurobema taitianum Pleurocera foremani Pleuronaia dolabelloides Pluerobema clava Potamilus capax Potamilus inflatus Ptychobranchus foremanianus Ptychobranchus greenii Ptychobranchus subtentum Quadrula cylindrica cylindrica Quadrula cylindrica strigillata

Common Name Pink Mucket Neosho Mucket Alabama Lamp Pearly Mussel Birdswing Pearlymussel Scaleshell Round Rocksnail Plicate Rocksnail Painted Rocksnail Flat Pebblesnail Slabside pearlymussel Cylindrical Lioplax Alabama Pearlshell Alabama Moccasinshell Coosa Moccasinshell Neosho madtom Ring Pink Littlewing Pearlymussel White wartyback Orange-foot Pimpleback Sheepnose Mussel Clubshell Southern Clubshell Dark Pigtoe Southern Pigtoe Ovate Clubshell Rough Pigtoe Dark Pigtoe Heavy Pigtoe Rough Hornsnail Slabside Pearlymussel Clubshell Mussel Fat Pocketbook Alabama Heelsplitter Rayed Kidneyshell Triangular Kidneyshell Fluted Kidneyshell Rabbitsfoot Rough Rabbitsfoot

Federal Status LE C LE LE LE LT LE LT LE C LE C LT LE LT LE LE LE LE C LE LE LE LE LE LE LE LE PE C LE LE LT LE LE C C LE

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Taxonomic Group Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Reptiles Reptiles Reptiles Reptiles Reptiles Reptiles Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants

Scientific Name Quadrula fragosa Quadrula intermedia Quadrula sparsa Quadrula stapes Toxolasma cylindrellus Triodopsis platysayoides Tulotoma magnifica Villosa fabalis Villosa perpurpurea Villosa trabalis Glyptemys muhlenbergii Liochlorophis vernalis Nerodia erythrogaster neglecta Pituophis ruthveni Sistrurus catenatus Sternotherus depressus Abronia macrocarpa Apios priceana Arabis georgiana Arabis serotina Asclepias meadii Asplenium scolopendrium var. americanum Astragalus montii Clematis morefieldii Conradina verticillata Cycladenia humilis var jonesii Dalea foliosa Erigeron maguirei Eriogonum pelinophilum

Common Name Winged Mapleleaf Cumberland Monkeyface Appalachian Monkeyface Stirrupshell Pale Lilliput Flat-spired three-toothed Snail Tulotoma Snail Rayed Bean Mussel Purple Bean Cumberland Bean Bog Turtle Smooth Green Snake Copperbelly Water Snake Louisiana pine snake Eastern massasauga Flattened Musk Turtle Large-fruited sand-verbena Price's Potato-bean Georgia Rock-cress Shale barren rock-cress Mead's milkweed American Hart's-tongue Fern Heliotrope Milkvetch Morefield's Leather-flower Cumberland Rosemary Jones Cycladenia Leafy Prairie Clover Maguire Daisy clay-loving wild buckwheat

Federal Status LE LE LE E LE LT LE C LE LE LT LT LT C C LT LE LT C LE LT LT LT LE LT LT LE LT LT

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Taxonomic Group Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular

Scientific Name Geocarpon minimum Hibiscus dasycalyx Hoffmannseggia tenella Isotria medeoloides Leavenworthia exigua laciniata Lesquerella lyrata Marshallia mohrii Minuartia cumberlandensis Pediocactus despainii Pediocactus winkleri Penstemon haydenii Phacelia argillacea Platanthera integrilabia Platanthera leucophaea Platanthera praeclara Ptilimnium nodosum Sagittaria secundifolia Sarracenia oreophila Schoenocrambe barnebyi Scirpus ancistrochaetus Sclerocactus glaucus Sclerocactus wetlandicus Sclerocactus wrightiae

Common Name Earth fruit (Tinytim) Neches River rose-mallow Slender Rush-pea Small Whorled Pogonia Kentucky glade cress Lyrate Bladderpod Mohr's Barbara's Buttons Cumberland Sandwort San Rafael Cactus Winkler Pincushion Cactus Blowout Penstemon Clay Phacelia White Fringeless Orchid Eastern prairie fringed orchid Western Prairie Fringed Orchid Harperella Kral's water-plantain Green Pitcher Plant Barneby Reed-mustard Northeastern Bulrush Colorado hookless cactus Uinta Basin Hookless Cactus Wright Fishhook Cactus

Federal Status LT C LE LT C LT LT LE LE LT LE LE C LT LT LE LT LE LE LE LT LT LE

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Taxonomic Group Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants

Scientific Name

Common Name

Federal Status

Spigelia gentianoides var. alabamensis Spiraea virginiana Spiranthes diluvialis Spiranthes parksii Symphyotrichum georgianum Thelypteris burksiorum Townsendia aprica Trifolium stoloniferum Xyris tennesseensis

Gentian Pinkroot Virginia Spiraea Ute Ladies' Tresses Navasota ladies'-tresses Georgia Aster Alabama Streak-sorus Fern Last Chance Townsendia Running Buffalo Clover Tennessee Yellow-eyed Grass

LE LT LT LE C LT LT LE LE

Sources: USFWS and State Heritage Programs Federal Status Codes: LE=Listed Endangered; LT=Listed Threatened; C=Candidate; DL=Delisted; BGEPA=Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act

Appendix 3.13-A presents the state and Federally listed species for the individual counties evaluated in each coal region. The numbers of Federally listed species mentioned in the following paragraphs are summaries based upon the information presented in Appendix 3.13-A. Based upon the representative counties, the Appalachian Basin Coal Region has the greatest number of Federally listed species of any coal region. The Northwest Coal Region has the least number of Federally listed species of the seven coal regions. In the Illinois Basin and Appalachian Basin Coal Regions, the majority of Federally listed species are mollusks. An overview of the Federally listed species in each state within each coal region is also presented in Table 3.13-2 for informational purposes; however, it should be noted that the counts in this table include duplicate species between states within a coal region, and that three counties in Colorado fall within two different coal regions. From this summary it is apparent that there are more Federally listed species in Alabama compared to the other coal-producing states (81 species), and Missouri has the least (0 species).

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Table 3.13-2: Summary of Federally Listed Species Summed by State for 193 Counties with Active Coal Mining Total Number of Number Counties Listed in Study Species in Amphibian Bird Crustacean Fish Insect Basin State Area State Species Species Species Species Species Appalachian Basin AL 11 81 1 3 0 9 2 KY 21 19 0 2 0 2 1 MD 2 3 0 1 0 0 0 OH 16 12 0 1 0 0 1 PA 28 16 0 1 0 0 0 TN 4 37 0 1 0 7 0 VA 6 30 0 1 1 3 0 WV 26 15 1 0 0 1 0 Colorado Plateau AZ 1 8 1 5 0 2 0 CO 7 17 0 7 0 4 1 NM 2 3 1 2 0 0 0 UT 3 22 0 3 0 5 0 Gulf Region LA 2 5 0 3 0 0 0 MS 1 3 0 0 0 1 0 TX 10 23 1 9 0 2 0 Illinois Basin IL 11 14 0 1 0 1 0 IN 8 17 0 2 0 0 1 KY 8 17 0 1 0 0 2 CO 5 18 0 9 0 5 0 MT 6 12 0 8 0 2 0 Northern Rocky ND 3 6 0 2 0 1 1 Mountains and Great WY 5 19 1 10 0 1 0 Plains Northwest AK 1 4 0 2 0 1 0 AR 1 3 0 2 0 0 1 Other Western KS 2 10 0 6 0 0 1 Interior MO 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 OK 5 17 0 5 0 3 1 Table 3.13-3: Summary of Known Causes of Decline for Federally-Listed Species by Coal Region for 193 Counties with Active Mines

Mammal Species 2 3 1 1 1 2 3 2 0 3 0 4 1 1 5 2 1 2 3 2 2 5 1 0 1 0 2

Mollusk Species 48 7 0 7 9 22 19 7 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 7 10 11 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 5

Reptile Species 1 0 0 1 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Plant Species 15 4 1 1 3 5 3 4 0 3 0 10 1 0 5 3 0 1 1 0 0 2 0 0 1 0 1

Known Cause of Species Decline

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Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region
Appalachian Basin

Scientific Name Necturus alabamensis Plethodon nettingi Aquila chrysaetos Haliaeetus leucocephalus Mycteria americana Picoides borealis Lirceus usdagalun Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi Crystallaria cincotta Cyprinella caerulea Erimonax monachus Erimystax cahni Etheostoma chermocki Etheostoma nuchale

Amphibians

Common Name Black Warrior Waterdog Cheat Mountain salamander Golden Eagle Bald Eagle Wood Stork Red-cockaded Woodpecker Lee County Cave Isopod Gulf Sturgeon Diamond darter Blue Shiner Spotfin Chub Slender Chub Vermilion Darter Watercress Darter

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candforms_pdf/r4/D030_V01. pdf http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Plethodon+nettingi http://www.fws.gov/midwest/eagle/recovery/biologue.h tml http://www.fws.gov/midwest/eagle/recovery/biologue.h tml

C LT
BGEPA BGEPA

X X X X X X

X X X X

X X

Birds Birds Birds Birds Crustacea ns Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish

X X

LE LE LE LT C LT LT LT LE LE

http://www.fws.gov/rcwrecovery/rcw.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Picoides+borealis

X X

X X X X

http://www.fws.gov/northeast/virginiafield/pdf/endspec ies/fact_sheets/lee%20co%20isopod.pdf http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Acipenser+oxyrinchus+desotoi http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Crystallaria+cincotta

X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X
Known Cause of Species Decline

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E05Y.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Erimonax+monachus http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E01X.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Etheostoma+chermocki http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E00U.html

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Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region
Appalachian Basin Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Insects Insects Insects Insects

Scientific Name Etheostoma phytophilum Etheostoma sagitta Etheostoma susanae Notropis albizonatus Notropis cahabae Noturus flavipinnis Percina aurolineata Phoxinus cumberlandensis Scaphirhynchus suttkusi Neonympha mitchellii mitchellii Nicrophorus americanus Pseudanophthalmus frigidus Somatochlora hineana

Common Name Rush Darter Arrow Darter Cumberland Darter Palezone Shiner Cahaba Shiner Yellowfin Madtom Goldline Darter Blackside Dace Alabama Sturgeon Mitchell's Satyr American Burying Beetle Icebox Cave Beetle Hine's Emerald PE C PE LE LE LT LT LT LE LE LE C LE

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Etheostoma+phytophilum

X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Etheostoma+sagitta http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Etheostoma+susanae http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E04E.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E04C.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E01Y.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E05S.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E05I.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E026.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Neonympha+mitchellii+mitchellii

X X

X X X

X X X X X

X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Nicrophorus+americanus http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Pseudanophthalmus+frigidus http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Somatochlora+hineana http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Corynorhinus+townsendii+virginianus

Mammals

Corynorhinus Virginia big-eared LE (=Plecotus) townsendii bat virginianus

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Known Cause of Species Decline

Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region
Appalachian Basin

Scientific Name Myotis grisescens Myotis sodalis Alasmidonta atropurpurea Athearnia anthonyi Conradilla (Lemiox) rimosus Cumberlandia monodonta Cyprogenia stegaria Dromus dromas Epioblasma brevidens Epioblasma capsaeformis Epioblasma florentina florentina Epioblasma florentina walkeri

Common Name Gray Bat Indiana Bat Cumberland Elktoe Anthony Riversnail Birdswing Pearlymussel Spectaclecase Fanshell mussel Dromedary Pearlymussel Cumberlandian Combshell Oyster Mussel Yellow Blossom (pearlymussel) Tan Riffleshell LE LE LE LE LE C LE LE LE LE LE LE

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Myotis+grisescens http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Myotis+sodalis

Mammals Mammals Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Alasmidonta+atropurpurea http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Athearnia+anthonyi http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00I.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Cumberlandia+monodonta http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Cyprogenia+stegaria http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00K.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F01F.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F01T.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Epioblasma+florentina+florentina http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F010.html

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Epioblasma metastriata

Upland Combshell

X
Known Cause of Species Decline

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Epioblasma+metastriata

Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region
Appalachian Basin

Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks

Scientific Name Epioblasma obliquata obliquata Epioblasma othcaloogensis Epioblasma torulosa rangiana Epioblasma torulosa torulosa Fusconaia cor Fusconaia cuneolus Fusconaia escambia Fusconaia rotulata Hemistena lata Lampsilis (Hamiota) altilis Lampsilis (Hamiota) perovalis Lampsilis abrupta Lampsilis virescens

Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks

Common Name Purple Cat's Paw Pearlymussel Southern Acornshell Northern Riffleshell Tubercled blossom (pearlymussel) Shiny Pigtoe Fine-rayed Pigtoe Narrow Pigtoe

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

LE LE LE LE LE LE C

X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Epioblasma+torulosa+rangiana http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Epioblasma+torulosa+torulosa http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00Q.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00O.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Fusconaia+escambia http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Fusconaia+rotulata

Round Ebonyshell C Cracking pearlymussel Finelined Pocketbook Orangenacre Mucket Pink Mucket Alabama Lamp LE LT LT LE LE

X X X X X X

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F01X.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Lampsilis+altilis http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Lampsilis+perovalis http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00G.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00A.html

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Pearly Mussel
Mollusks

Leptoxis ampla

Round Rocksnail

X Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

X
Known Cause of Species Decline

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Leptoxis+ampla

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region
Appalachian Basin

Scientific Name Leptoxis plicata Leptoxis taeniata Lepyrium showalteri Lexingtonia dolabelloides Lioplax cyclostomaformis Margaritifera marrianae Medionidus acutissimus Medionidus parvulus Obovaria retusa Pegias fabula Plethobasus cicatricosus Plethobasus

Common Name Plicate Rocksnail Painted Rocksnail Flat Pebblesnail Slabside Pearlymussel Cylindrical Lioplax Alabama Pearlshell Alabama Moccasinshell Coosa Moccasinshell Ring Pink Littlewing Pearlymussel White wartyback Orange-foot LE LT LE C LE C LT LE LE LE LE LE

Population isolation/localization X

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Leptoxis+plicata http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Leptoxis+ampla http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Lepyrium+showalteri http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Lexingtonia+dolabelloides http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Lioplax+cyclostomaformis http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Margaritifera+marrianae

Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks

X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X

X X X

X X X X X

X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Medionidus+acutissimus http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Medionidus+parvulus http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00S.html

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00L.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00M.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00R.html

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cooperianus
Mollusks Mollusks

Pimpleback Sheepnose Mussel C Clubshell LE X X X X X Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting X X X X
Known Cause of Species Decline
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Plethobasus+cyphyus

Plethobasus cyphyus Pleurobema clava

X Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

http://web4.msue.msu.edu/mnfi/abstracts/zoology/Pleur obema_clava.pdf

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region
Appalachian Basin

Scientific Name Pleurobema decisum Pleurobema fervum Pleurobema georgianum Pleurobema perovatum Pleurobema plenum Pleurobema taitianum Pluerobema clava Potamilus inflatus Ptychobranchus (greenii) foremanianus Ptychobranchus greenii Ptychobranchus subtentum

Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks

Common Name Southern Clubshell Dark Pigtoe Southern Pigtoe Ovate Clubshell Rough Pigtoe Heavy Pigtoe Clubshell Mussel Alabama Heelsplitter Rayed Kidneyshell Triangular Kidneyshell Fluted Kidneyshell

Population isolation/localization X

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Pleurobema+decisum http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile .action?spcode=F03A http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Pleurobema+georgianum http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Pleurobema+perovatum

LE LE LE LE LE LE LE LT LE LE C

X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X

X X X X

X X X

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00P.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F014.html http://www.fws.gov/midwest/Endangered/clams/clubs_ fc.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F01O.html http://www.georgiawildlife.com/sites/default/files/uplo ads/legacy_assets/Documents/gnhp/ptychobranchus_for emanianus.pdf

Mollusks

Mollusks Mollusks

X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Ptychobranchus+greenii http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Ptychobranchus+subtentum

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Quadrula cylindrica cylindrica Quadrula cylindrica strigillata Quadrula intermedia

Rabbitsfoot Rough Rabbitsfoot Cumberland Monkeyface

C LE LE

X X X

X X X X

X X X Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

X X X
Known Cause of Species Decline

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Quadrula+cylindrica http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00V.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00E.html

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region
Appalachian Basin

Scientific Name

Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Reptiles Reptiles Reptiles

Common Name Appalachain Quadrula sparsa Monkeyface Stirrupshell Quadrula stapes Toxolasma cylindrellus Pale Lilliput Flat-spired threeTriodopsis toothed Snail platysayoides Alabama Tulotoma magnifica Livebearing Snail Rayed Bean Villosa fabalis Mussel Purple Bean Villosa perpurpurea Cumberland Villosa trabalis Bean Clemmys (Glyptemys) Bog Turtle muhlenbergii Eastern Sistrurus catenatus massasauga Flattened Musk Sternotherus depressus Turtle

Population isolation/localization X

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00D.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F027.html

LE LE LE LT LE C LE LE LT C LT

X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00B.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Triodopsis+platysayoides http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Tulotoma+magnifica http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Villosa+fabalis http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F001.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F000.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Clemmys+muhlenbergii http://www.fws.gov/midwest/Endangered/reptiles/eama -fct-sht.html

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Sternotherus+depressus

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Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants

Apios priceana Arabis georgiana Arabis serotina

Price's PotatoLT bean Georgia RockC cress Shale barren rockLE cress

X X X

X X X X Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Apios+priceana http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Arabis+georgiana

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Arabis+serotina

Known Cause of Species Decline

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region
Appalachian Basin

Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants

Scientific Name Asplenium scolopendrium var. americanum Clematis morefieldii Conradina verticillata Ptilimnium nodosum Dalea foliosa Isotria medeoloides Leavenworthia exigua laciniata Lesquerella lyrata Marshallia mohrii

Common Name American Hart'stongue Fern Morefield's Leather-flower Cumberland Rosemary Harperella Leafy Prairie Clover Small-whorled Pogonia Kentucky glade cress Lyrate Bladderpod Mohr's Barbara's Buttons LT LE LT LE LE LT C LT LT

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/federal_register/fr1562.pdf http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Clematis+morefieldii

X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName =Conradina verticillata http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Ptilimnium+nodosum http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Dalea+foliosa http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Isotria+medeoloides http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candforms_pdf/r4/Q12F_P01. pdf http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Lesquerella+lyrata http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Marshallia+mohrii

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Minuartia cumberlandensis Platanthera integrilabia Sagittaria secundifolia

Cumberland Sandwort White Fringeless Orchid Little River Arrow-head

LE C LT

X X X X

X X X X
Known Cause of Species Decline

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Minuartia+cumberlandensis

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Platanthera+integrilabia http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Sarracenia+oreophila

Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region
Appalachian Basin

Scientific Name Sarracenia oreophila Scirpus ancistrochaetus Spigelia gentianoides var. alabamensis Spiraea virginiana Symphyotrichum georgianum Thelypteris pilosa var. alabamensis (burksiorum) Trifolium stoloniferum Xyris tennesseensis

Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants

Common Name Green Pitcher Plant Northeastern Bulrush Gentian Pinkroot Virginia Spiraea Georgia Aster Alabama Streaksorus Fern Running Buffalo Clover Tennessee Yellow-eyed Grass

Population isolation/localization X

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Scirpus+ancistrochaetus http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Spigelia+gentianoides http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Spiraea+virginiana http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Symphyotrichum+georgianum

LE LE LE LT C LT LE LE

X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/federal_register/fr2084.pdf http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Trifolium+stoloniferum http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Xyris+tennesseensis http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Xyris+tennesseensis

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Colorado Plateau

Amphibia ns Birds Birds Birds Birds

Plethodon neomexicanus Anthus spragueii Centrocercus urophasianus Charadrius montanus Coccyzus americanus

Jemez Mountains salamander Sprague's pipit Greater Sage Grouse Mountain plover Yellow-billed cuckoo

C C C PT C

X X X X X
Known Cause of Species Decline

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Plethodon+neomexicanus http://fieldguide.mt.gov/detail_ABPBM02060.aspx

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Centrocercus+urophasianus http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Charadrius+montanus http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Coccyzus+americanus

Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region Colorado Plateau

Birds Birds Birds Birds Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Fish Insects

Scientific Name Empidonax traillii extimus Grus americana Haliaeetus leucocephalus Strix occidentalis lucida Gila cypha Gila elegans Oncorhynchus apache Ptychocheilus lucius Tiaroga cobitis Xyrauchen texanus Boloria acrocnema

Common Name Southwestern willow flycatcher Whooping Crane Bald Eagle Mexican Spotted Owl Humpback Chub Bonytail Apache Trout Colorado pikeminnow Loach Minnow Razorback Sucker Uncompahgre

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://www.fws.gov/southwest/es/arizona/Documents/S peciesDocs/SWWF/SWWFC.pdf http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/B003.html

LE LE BGEP A LT LE LE LT LE LT LE LE

X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Haliaeetus+leucocephalus http://www.fws.gov/southwest/es/arizona/Documents/R edbook/Mexican%20Spotted%20Owl.pdf http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E020.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E020.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Oncorhynchus+apache http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Ptychocheilus+lucius

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E03X.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E054.html http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile

For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material
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Chapter 3 – Affected Environment For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material FIRST WORKING DRAFT – 10/22/10 DO NOT DISTRIBUTE OUTSIDE DOI ANDCOOPERATING/COORDINATING AGENCIES/ENTITIES

Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals Mammals

Cynomys gunnisoni Cynomus parvidens Lynx canadensis Mustela nigripes Ursus arctos

fritillary butterfly Gunnison's prairie dog Utah prairie dog Canada Lynx Black-Footed Ferret Brown (Grizzly) bear

.action?spcode=I01Q

C LT LT LE LT X X X X Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting X X X X X

X X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Cynomys+gunnisoni http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/in formation/Cynomys_parvidens.html http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile .action?spcode=A073

X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Mustela+nigripes http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/in formation/Ursus_arctos.html

Known Cause of Species Decline

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region Colorado Plateau

Scientific Name Astragalus montii

Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants

Common Name Heliotrope Milkvetch

Population isolation/localization X X

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://www.fws.gov/ecos/ajax/docs/recovery_plan/9509 27b.pdf http://www.fws.gov/southwest/es/Arizona/Documents/ Redbook/Jones%20Cycladenia%20RB.pdf http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/rareplants/profiles/tep /erigeron_maguirei/index.shtml http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Eriogonum+pelinophilum

LT LT LT LT LT PT C

X X X

Cycladenia humilis var Jones Cycladenia jonesii Erigeron maguirei Eriogonum pelinophilum Lesquerella congesta Penstemon debilis Penstemon scariosus albifluvis Maguire Daisy clay-loving wild buckwheat Dudley Bluffs bladderpod Parachute beardtongue White River beardtongue

X X X X X
For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material

X X

FIRST WORKING DRAFT – 10/22/10 DO NOT DISTRIBUTE OUTSIDE DOI ANDCOOPERATING/COORDINATING AGENCIES/ENTITIES

3-137

Phacelia submutica Physaria obcordata Pediocactus despainii Pediocactus winkleri Phacelia argillacea Schoenocrambe barnebyi

DeBeque phacelia Dudley Bluffs twinpod

PT LT

X X

X X X X X X X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Phacelia+submutica http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Physaria+obcordata http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/rareplants/profiles/tep /pediocactus_despainii/index.shtml http://www.centerforplantconservation.org/collection/c pc_viewprofile.asp?CPCNum=3138 http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/rareplants/conservatio n/success/phacelia_argillacea_recovery.shtml http://dwrcdc.nr.utah.gov/rsgis2/Search/Display.asp?Fl Nm=schobarn

San Rafael Cactus LE Winkler LT Pincushion Cactus Clay Phacelia Barneby Reedmustard LE LE

X X

X X X

Known Cause of Species Decline

Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region Colorado Plateau

Scientific Name Sclerocactus glaucus Sclerocactus wetlandicus Sclerocactus wrightiae Townsendia aprica Spiranthes diluvialis

Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants

Common Name Colorado hookless cactus Uinta Basin Hookless Cactus Wright Fishhook Cactus Last Chance Townsendia Ute ladies'-tresses

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://www.fws.gov/mountainprairie/species/plants/ColoradoHooklessCactus/index.ht ml http://www.fws.gov/mountainprairie/species/plants/UintaBasinHooklessCactus/Reco veryOutlineApril2010.pdf

LT LT LE LT LT

X X X

X X X X

X X X X X

http://www.fws.gov/mountainprairie/species/plants/WrightsCactus/Final5YearRevie w08252008.pdf http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/rareplants/profiles/tep /townsendia_aprica/index.shtml http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Spiranthes+diluvialis

For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material
FIRST WORKING DRAFT – 10/22/10 DO NOT DISTRIBUTE OUTSIDE DOI ANDCOOPERATING/COORDINATING AGENCIES/ENTITIES

3-138

Chapter 3 – Affected Environment For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material FIRST WORKING DRAFT – 10/22/10 DO NOT DISTRIBUTE OUTSIDE DOI ANDCOOPERATING/COORDINATING AGENCIES/ENTITIES

Gulf Region

Amphibia ns Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds

Bufo (Anaxyrus) houstonensis Charadrius melodus Charadrius montanus Falco femoralis septentrionalis Grus americana Haliaeetus leucocephalus Picoides borealis Sterna antillarum athalassos

Houston toad Piping Plover Mountain Plover Northern Aplomado falcon Whooping Crane Bald Eagle Red-cockaded Woodpecker Interior Least Tern

LE LT PT LE LE
BGEPA

X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X
Known Cause of Species Decline

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Bufo+houstonensis http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/B079.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Charadrius+montanus

X X

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/B06V.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/B003.html http://www.fws.gov/midwest/eagle/recovery/biologue.h tml

X X X

LE LE

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Picoides+borealis http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/publications/pwdpubs/medi a/pwd_bk_w7000_0013_interior_least_tern.pdf

Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region Gulf Region

Scientific Name Notropis buccula Notropis oxyrhynchus Percina aurora Herpailurus yagouaroundi cacomitli Canis rufus

Common Name Smalleye shiner Sharpnose shiner Pearl darter Gulf Coast jaguarundi Red wolf C C C LE LE

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Notropis+buccula http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Notropis+oxyrhynchus http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Percina+aurora http://www.agarman.dial.pipex.com/jundi.htm http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Canis+rufus

Fish Fish Fish

X X X X X

X X X

X X

Mammal

Mammals

For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material
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3-139

Leopardus pardalis Ursus americanus Ursus americanus luteolus Quadrula stapes Pituophis ruthveni Abronia macrocarpa Geocarpon minimum

Ocelot Black Bear Louisiana black bear Stirrupshell Louisiana pine snake Large-fruited sand-verbena Earth-fruit

LE LT (SE region) LT LE C LE LT

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Leopardus+pardalis http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Ursus+americanus http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Ursus+americanus+luteolus http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Quadrula stapes http://www.fws.gov/southwest/clearlakees/PDF/PINES NAKE.pdf

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Abronia+macrocarpa http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Geocarpon+minimum

Known Cause of Species Decline

Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region Gulf Region

Scientific Name Hibiscus dasycalyx Hoffmannseggia tenella Spiranthes parksii Haliaeetus leucocephalus Sternula antillarum athalassos

Vascular Plants Vascular Plants Vascular Plants

Common Name Neches River rose-mallow Slender Rush-pea Navasota ladies'tresses Bald Eagle Interior Least Tern

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Hibiscus+dasycalyx

C LE LE BGEP A LE

X X X X X

X X X X X X X

X X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Hoffmannseggia+tenella http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Spiranthes+parksii http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Haliaeetus+leucocephalus http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/publications/pwdpubs/medi a/pwd_bk_w7000_0013_interior_least_tern.pdf

Illinois Basin

Birds Birds

For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material
FIRST WORKING DRAFT – 10/22/10 DO NOT DISTRIBUTE OUTSIDE DOI ANDCOOPERATING/COORDINATING AGENCIES/ENTITIES

3-140

Scaphirhynchus albus Pseudanophthalmus frigidus Nicrophorus americanus Myotis grisescens Myotis sodalis Cumberlandia monodonta Cyprogenia stegaria

Pallid Sturgeon Icebox Cave Beetle American Burying Beetle Gray Bat Indiana Bat Spectaclecase Eastern Fanshell Pearlymussel/Fan shell

LE C LE LE LE C LE

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Scaphirhynchus+albus http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Pseudanophthalmus+frigidus http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Nicrophorus+americanus http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Myotis+grisescens http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Myotis+sodalis http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Cumberlandia+monodonta http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Cyprogenia+stegaria

Mollusks

Known Cause of Species Decline

Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region Illinois Basin

Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks

Scientific Name Epioblasma obliquata obliquata Epioblasma torulosa rangiana Epioblasma torulosa torulosa Lampsilis abrupta Obovaria retusa Pegias fabula

Common Name Catspaw Northern Riffleshell Tubercled Blossom Pink Mucket Ring Pink Littlewing Pearlymussel LE LE LE LE LE LE

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Epioblasma+obliquata+obliquata http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Epioblasma+torulosa+rangiana http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Epioblasma+torulosa+torulosa http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00G.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00S.html

X X X X X X

X X X X X X X

X X X

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00L.html

For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material
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3-141

Plethobasus cicatricosus Plethobasus cooperianus Plethobasus cyphyus Pleurobema clava Pleurobema plenum Potamilus capax Ptychobranchus subtentum Quadrula cylindrica cylindrica Nerodia erythrogaster neglecta

White Wartyback Orangefoot Pimpleback Sheepnose Clubshell Rough Pigtoe Fat Pocketbook Fluted Kidneyshell Rabbitsfoot Copperbelly Water Snake

LE LE C LE LE LE C C LT

X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00M.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00R.html

X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Plethobasus+cyphyus http://www.fws.gov/midwest/Endangered/clams/clubs_ fc.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00P.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Potamilus capax http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Ptychobranchus+subtentum

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Quadrula+cylindrica http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Nerodia+erythrogaster+neglecta

Known Cause of Species Decline

Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region Illinois Basin

Reptiles

Reptiles Vascular Plants Vascular Plants

Scientific Name Opheodrys (Liochlorophis) vernalis Sistrurus catenatus catenatus Leavenworthia exigua laciniata Platanthera leucophaea

Common Name Smooth Green Snake Eastern Massasauga Kentucky glade cress Eastern prairie fringed orchid LT C C LT

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://www.fs.fed.us/r2/projects/scp/assessments/smoot hgreensnake.pdf http://www.fws.gov/midwest/Endangered/reptiles/eama -fct-sht.html

X X X X X X X

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/candforms_pdf/r4/Q12F_P01. pdf

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Platanthera+leucophaea

For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material
FIRST WORKING DRAFT – 10/22/10 DO NOT DISTRIBUTE OUTSIDE DOI ANDCOOPERATING/COORDINATING AGENCIES/ENTITIES

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Chapter 3 – Affected Environment For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material FIRST WORKING DRAFT – 10/22/10 DO NOT DISTRIBUTE OUTSIDE DOI ANDCOOPERATING/COORDINATING AGENCIES/ENTITIES

Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains

Amphibia ns

Bufo boreas boreas Anthus spragueii Aquila chrysaetos Centrocercus urophasianus Charadrius melodus circumcinctus Charadrius montanus Coccyzus americanus Empidonax traillii extimus

Boreal Toad Sprague's pipit Golden Eagle Greater SageGrouse Piping Plover Mountain Plover Yellow-billed Cuckoo Southwestern Willow Flycatcher

C C
BGEPA

X X X X X X X X X
Known Cause of Species Decline

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/federal_register/fr4410.pdf

Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds Birds

X X X X

http://fieldguide.mt.gov/detail_ABPBM02060.aspx http://www.fws.gov/midwest/eagle/recovery/biologue.h tml http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Centrocercus+urophasianus http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/B079.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Charadrius+montanus http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Coccyzus+americanus

LE LT PT C LE

Birds

X Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

http://www.fws.gov/southwest/es/arizona/Documents/S peciesDocs/SWWF/SWWFC.pdf

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region
Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains
Birds

Scientific Name Grus americana Haliaeetus leucocephalus

Common Name Whooping Crane LE

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/B003.html

Birds

Bald Eagle

BGEPA

http://www.fws.gov/midwest/eagle/recovery/biologue.h tml

For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material
FIRST WORKING DRAFT – 10/22/10 DO NOT DISTRIBUTE OUTSIDE DOI ANDCOOPERATING/COORDINATING AGENCIES/ENTITIES

3-143

Sterna antillarum Strix occidentalis lucida Gila cypha Gila elegans Ptychocheilus lucius Scaphirhynchus albus Thymallus arcticus Xyrauchen texanus Boloria acrocnema Hesperia dacotae Canis lupus

Least tern Mexican Spotted Owl Humpback Chub Bonytail Colorado River squawfish/pikemi nnow Pallid Sturgeon Arctic Grayling Razorback Sucker Uncompahgre fritillary butterfly Dakota Skipper Gray wolf

LE LT LE LE LE LE C LE LE C LE/LT

X X X X X X

X X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Sterna+antillarum http://www.fws.gov/southwest/es/arizona/Documents/R edbook/Mexican%20Spotted%20Owl.pdf

X X

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E000.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E020.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Ptychocheilus+lucius http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Scaphirhynchus+albus

Fish Fish Fish Insects Insects Mammals

X X X X X X X X

X X X X X Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting X X

http://fieldguide.mt.gov/detail_AFCHA07010.aspx http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E054.html http://www.butterflyrecovery.org/species_profiles/unco mpahgre_fritillary/ http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Hesperia+dacotae http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Canis+lupus

Known Cause of Species Decline

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region Northern Rocky Mountain s and Great Plains

Scientific Name

Common Name

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)

Mammals

Cynomys gunnisoni

Gunnison's prairie dog

X
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Cynomys+gunnisoni http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile

Mammals

Lynx canadensis

Canada Lynx

X
For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material

FIRST WORKING DRAFT – 10/22/10 DO NOT DISTRIBUTE OUTSIDE DOI ANDCOOPERATING/COORDINATING AGENCIES/ENTITIES

3-144

Mustela nigripes Zapus hudsonius preblei Lesquerella congesta Penstemon debilis Penstemon haydenii Penstemon scariosus albifluvis Phacelia submutica Physaria obcordata Sclerocactus glaucus

Black-footed ferret Preble's Meadow Jumping Mouse Dudley Bluffs bladderpod Parachute beardtongue Blowout Penstemon White River beardtongue DeBeque phacelia Dudley Bluffs twinpod Colorado hookless Cactus

LE LT LT PT LE C PT LT LT X X X X X X X X X X Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting X X X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Mustela+nigripes http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile .action?spcode=A0C2

X X X X X X X
Known Cause of Species Decline

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Lesquerella+congesta http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Penstemon+debilis http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Penstemon+haydenii http://dwrcdc.nr.utah.gov/rsgis2/Search/Display.asp?Fl Nm=pensscar http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Phacelia+submutica http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Physaria+obcordata http://www.fws.gov/mountainprairie/species/plants/ColoradoHooklessCactus/index.ht ml

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region
Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains

Scientific Name Spiranthes diluvialis

Common Name Ute ladies' tresses LT

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Spiranthes+diluvialis

Vascular Plants

For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material
FIRST WORKING DRAFT – 10/22/10 DO NOT DISTRIBUTE OUTSIDE DOI ANDCOOPERATING/COORDINATING AGENCIES/ENTITIES

3-145

Chapter 3 – Affected Environment For Official Use Only - Deliberative Process Material FIRST WORKING DRAFT – 10/22/10 DO NOT DISTRIBUTE OUTSIDE DOI ANDCOOPERATING/COORDINATING AGENCIES/ENTITIES

Northwest

Birds Birds

Brachyramphus brevirostris Gavia adamsii Accipiter gentilis laingi Acipenser medirostris Bison bison athabascae Aquila chrysaetos Charadrius melodus Grus americana Charadrius montanus Haliaeetus leucocephalus Numenius borealis

Kittliz's murrelet Yellow-billed loon Northern Queen Charlotte Goshawk Green Sturgeon Wood Bison Golden Eagle Piping Plover Whooping Crane Mountain Plover Bald Eagle Eskimo Curlew

C C PE C LE BGEP A LT LE PT BGEP A LE

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

X X X X X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Accipiter+gentilis+laingi http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Brachyramphus+brevirostris http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Gavia+adamsii

Birds

Fish Mammals

X X

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Acipenser+medirostris http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Bison+bison+athabascae http://www.fws.gov/midwest/eagle/recovery/biologue.h tml http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/B079.html

Other Western Interior

Birds Birds Birds

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/B003.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Charadrius+montanus

Birds Birds Birds

http://www.fws.gov/midwest/eagle/recovery/biologue.h tml http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Numenius+borealis

Known Cause of Species Decline

Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region
Birds Birds

Scientific Name Sterna antillarum Sterna antillarum athalassos

Common Name Least Tern Interior least tern LE LE

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://ecos.fws.gov/speciesProfile/profile/speciesProfile .action?spcode=B07N http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/publications/pwdpubs/medi a/pwd_bk_w7000_0013_interior_least_tern.pdf

X X

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Other Western Interior

Fish

Etheostoma cragini Notropis girardi Noturus placidus Percina pantherina Nicrophorus americanus Myotis grisescens Myotis sodalis Cumberlandia monodonta Arkansia wheeleri Lampsilis rafinesqueana Leptodea leptodon Quadrula fragosa

Arkansas Darter Arkansas River Shiner Neosho madtom Leopard Darter American burying beetle Gray bat Indiana Bat Spectaclecase Ouachita Rock Pocketbook Neosho Mucket Scaleshell Winged Mapleleaf

C LT LT LT LE LE LE C LE C LE LE

X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Collection/Commerical or Illegal Harvesting X X X X X X X X
Known Cause of Species Decline

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Etheostoma+cragini

Fish Fish Fish Insects Mammals Mammals Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks Mollusks

X X X X X X X X X

http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E05X.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E03S.html http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/E017.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Nicrophorus+americanus http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Myotis+grisescens http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Myotis+sodalis http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Cumberlandia+monodonta http://ecos.fws.gov/docs/life_histories/F00U.html http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Lampsilis+rafinesqueana http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Leptodea+leptodon http://www.fws.gov/midwest/Endangered/clams/winge _fc.html

Exterminated or Predator Control Actions

Habitat loss, degradation or alteration

Genetic Issues in Isolated Populations

Coal Region Other Western Interior

Scientific Name Platanthera praeclara

Common Name Western Prairie Fringed Orchid LT

Population isolation/localization

Competition/Invasive Species

Reproductive Success Issues

Water quality degradation

Reduction of Prey Base

Predation/Overgrazing

Vegetation Succession

Human disturbance

Taxonomic Group

Hunting Pressure

Nest Parasitism

Federal Status

Diseases/Pests

Hybridization

Pesticides

Pollution

Fisheries

Mining

Source (URL)
http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Platanthera+praeclara

Vascular Plants

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Mead's milkweed

http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServ e?searchName=Asclepias+meadii

Notes: Federal Status Codes: LE=Listed Endangered; LT=Listed Threatened; C=Candidate;P=Proposed; BGEPA=Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act

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3.13.1 Appalachian Basin Coal Region
3.13.1.1 In the Appalachian Basin Coal Region, there is a total of 117 Federally listed species. These include 36 terrestrial species and 81 aquatic species for the 114 mining counties that comprise the study area for this analysis. The listed species include birds, fish, insects, mammals, mollusks, amphibians, crustaceans, reptiles, and vascular plants. Each taxonomic group is discussed below. Table 3.13-3 presents the listed species for the Appalachian Basin Coal Region along with the known cause(s) of decline for each species. Figure 3.13-1 depicts the number of Federally listed species for each taxonomic group for the Appalachian Basin Coal Region. Figure 3.13-1 Number of Federally Listed Species for Each Taxonomic Group in the Appalachian Basin Coal Region

3.13.1.2 Vascular Plants Twenty percent of the Federally listed species for the counties evaluated in the Appalachian Basin Coal Region are vascular plants with a total of 23 species. Ten species are listed as Endangered: Cumberland sandwort (Minuartia cumberlandensis), harperella (Ptilimnium nodosum), shale barren rock-cress (Arabis serotina), Morefield's leather-flower (Clematis morefieldii), leafy prairie clover (Dalea foliosa), green pitcher plant (Sarracenia oreophila),
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northeastern bulrush (Scirpus ancistrochaetus), Gentian pinkroot (Spigelia gentianoides var. alabamensis), running buffalo clover (Trifolium stoloniferum), and Tennessee yellow-eyed grass (Xyris tennesseensis). Nine species are listed as Threatened: Cumberland rosemary (Conradina verticillata), Price's potato-bean (Apios priceana), American hart's-tongue fern (Asplenium scolopendrium var. americanum), small-whorled pogonia (Isotria medeoloides), lyrate bladderpod (Lesquerella lyrata), Mohr's Barbara's buttons (Marshallia mohrii), Little River arrow-head (Sagittaria secundifolia), Virginia spiraea (Spiraea virginiana), and Alabama streaksorus fern (Thelypteris pilosa var. alabamensis (burksiorum)). The following four species are listed as Candidate species: Georgia rock-cress (Arabis Georgiana), Kentucky glade cress (Leavenworthia exigua laciniata), white fringeless orchid (Platanthera integrilabia), and Georgia aster (Symphyotrichum georgianum). 3.13.1.3 Crustaceans One Federally listed crustacean species (or 1 percent of the total listed species for the Coal Region) is found in the Appalachian Basin Coal Region. The Lee County Cave isopod (Lirceus usdagalun) is listed as Endangered. 3.13.1.4 Mollusks Fifty-two percent of the Federally listed species for the Appalachian Basin Coal Region are mollusks. Only 8 of the 61 mollusc species listed are freshwater snails, which include the following species: the Anthony riversnail (Athearnia anthonyi), the plicate rocksnail (Leptoxis plicata), the flat pebblesnail (Lepyrium showalteri), the cylindrical lioplax (Lioplax cyclostomaformis), the Alabama live-bearing snail (Tulotoma magnifica), the round rocksnail (Leptoxis ampla), the painted rocksnail (Leptoxis taeniata), and the flat-spired three-toothed snail (Triodopsis platysayoides). The remaining listed mollusks are freshwater mussels. Freshwater mussels are in decline nationwide and particularly in the Southeast. According to Neves et al. (1997): The current status and prognosis for the Southeast region’s mussel fauna is grim. Of the 269 species in the Southeast, 13 percent are presumed extinct, 28 percent are endangered, 14 percent are threatened, 18 percent are of special concern, and only 25 percent are considered stable at this time. Thus, up to 75 percent of the mussel species native to the Southeast have been ecologically impacted, which is considered a regional phenomenon (Neves et al., 1997). One of the significant concerns with mussels is the limited geographic distribution of many mussel species, which are endemic to small areas with some limited to single watersheds (Neves et al., 1997). Therefore, these mussel species are extremely vulnerable to extirpation as a result of single catastrophic events. It is important to recognize that the known geographic distribution of mussel species is limited to where the species has actually been observed. Regardless of the nationwide decline in mussel species, Appalachia is a mussel biodiversity “hotspot” in the United States, which is demonstrated by the 53 Federally listed freshwater mussel species reported for the Appalachian Basin Coal Region. Forty of the freshwater mussel
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species are listed as Endangered and include the following species: the Cumberland elktoe (Alasmidonta atropurpurea), the fanshell mussel (Cyprogenia stegaria), the Dromedary pearlymussel (Dromus dromas), the Cumberlandian combshell (Epioblasma brevidens), the oyster mussel (Epioblasma capsaeformis), the yellow blossom (pearlymussel) (Epioblasma florentina florentina), the upland combshell (Epioblasma metastriata), the purple cat's paw pearlymussel (Epioblasma obliquata obliquata), the southern acornshell (Epioblasma othcaloogensis), the northern riffleshell (Epioblasma torulosa rangiana), the shiny pigtoe (Fusconaia cor), the fine-rayed pigtoe (Fusconaia cuneolus), the pink mucket (Lampsilis abrupt), the Alabama lamp pearlymussel (Lampsilis virescens), the birdswing pearlymussel (Conradilla (Lemiox) rimosus), the Coosa moccasinshell (Medionidus parvulus), the ring pink (Obovaria retusa), the littlewing pearlymussel (Pegias fibula), the white wartyback (Plethobasus cicatricosus), the orange-foot pimpleback (Plethobasus cooperianus), the southern clubshell (Pleurobema decisum), the southern pigtoe (Pleurobema georgianum), the ovate clubshell (Pleurobema perovatum), the rough pigtoe (Pleurobema plenum), the heavy pigtoe (Pleurobema taitianum), the dark pigtoe (Pleurobema furvum), the clubshell mussel (Pluerobema clava), the rayed kidneyshell (Ptychobranchus (greenii) foremanianus), the triangular kidneyshell (Ptychobranchus greenii), the rough rabbitsfoot (Quadrula cylindrica strigillata), the Cumberland monkeyface (Quadrula intermedia), the Appalachain monkeyface (Quadrula sparsa), the pale lilliput (Toxolasma cylindrellus), the Cumberland bean (Villosa trabalis), the tubercled blossom (pearlymussel) (Epioblasma torulosa torulosa), the stirrupshell (Quadrula stapes), the Cumberlandian combshell (Epioblasma brevidens ), the tan riffleshell (Epioblasma florentina walkeri), the cracking pearlymussel (Hemistena lata), and the purple bean (Villosa perpurpurea). Four mussel species are listed as Threatened: the finelined pocketbook (Lampsilis (Hamiota) altilis), the orangenacre mucket (Lampsilis (Hamiota) perovalis), the Alabama moccasinshell (Medionidus acutissimus), and the Alabama heelsplitter (Potamilus inflatus). Nine mussel species are listed as Candidate species: the spectaclecase (Cumberlandia monodonta), the narrow pigtoe (Fusconaia escambia), the round ebonyshell (Fusconaia rotulata), the slabside pearlymussel (Lexingtonia dolabelloides), the Alabama pearlshell (Margaritifera marrianae), the sheepnose mussel (Plethobasus cyphyus), the fluted kidneyshell (Ptychobranchus subtentum), the rabbitsfoot (Quadrula cylindrica cylindrical), and the rayed bean mussel (Villosa fabalis). 3.13.1.5 Insects Four Federally listed insect species (or 3 percent of the listed species) are found in the Appalachian Basin Coal Region. Three species are listed as Endangered: the American burying beetle (Nicrophorus americanus), the Mitchell’s satyr (Neonympha mitchellii mitchellii), and the Hine’s emerald (Somatochlora hineana). The Icebox Cave beetle (Pseudanophthalmus frigidus) is listed as a Candidate species. 3.13.1.6 Amphibians Two Federally listed amphibian species (or 2 percent of the listed species) are found in the Appalachian Basin Coal Region. The Cheat Mountain salamander (Plethodon netting) is listed
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as Threatened. The black warrior waterdog (Necturus alabamensis) is listed as a Candidate species. 3.13.1.7 Reptiles Three Federally listed reptile species (or 3 percent of the listed species) are found in the Appalachian Basin Coal Region. The bog turtle (Clemmys (Glyptemys) muhlenbergii) and the flattened musk turtle (Sternotherus depressus) are listed as Threatened. The Eastern massasauga (Sistrurus catenatus) is listed as a Candidate species. 3.13.1.8 Fish Fish comprise 14 percent of the Federally listed species for the Appalachian Basin Coal Region with a total of 16 species. Five fish species are listed as Endangered: the vermilion darter (Etheostoma chermocki), the watercress darter (Etheostoma nuchale), the palezone shiner (Notropis albizonatus), the cahaba shiner (Notropis cahabae), and the Alabama sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus suttkusi). Seven fish species are listed as Threatened: the Gulf sturgeon (Acipenser oxyrinchus desotoi), the blue shiner (Cyprinella caerulea), the goldline darter (Percina aurolineata), the blackside dace (Phoxinus cumberlandensis), the spotfin chub (Erimonax monachus) the slender chub (Erimystax cahni), and the yellowfin madtom (Noturus flavipinnis). The rush darter (Etheostoma phytophilum) and the Cumberland darter (Etheostoma susanae) are listed as Proposed Endangered. The diamond darter (Crystallaria cincotta) and the arrow darter (Etheostoma sagitta) are listed as Candidate species. 3.13.1.9 Birds Three percent of the species listed for the Appalachian Basin Coal Region are Federally listed with a total of four species. Two bird species are listed as Endangered: the wood stork (Mycteria americana) and the red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis). The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and the golden eagle (Aqulia chysaetos) are protected under the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act. Migratory birds have special status and are protected under the MBTA. Migratory pathways occur in the Appalachian Basin Coal Region. Appendix 3.13-C contains additional discussion of migratory flyways and how the migratory flyways intersect with the Appalachian Basin Coal Region. 3.13.1.10 Mammals Mammals comprise 3 percent of the Federally listed species for the Appalachian Basin Coal Region. Three species of bats, the gray bat (Myotis grisescens), the Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis), and the Virginia big-eared bat (Corynorhinus (=Plecotus) townsendii virginianus), are listed as Endangered.

3.13.2 Colorado Plateau Coal Region
In the Colorado Plateau Coal Region, there is a total of 38 Federally listed species, 32 terrestrial species and six aquatic species, for the 13 counties with active mining in the coal region. The listed species include birds, fish, mammals, amphibians, insects, and vascular plants. Each taxonomic group is discussed below. Table 3.13-3 presents the listed species for the Colorado
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Plateau Coal Region and the known cause(s) of decline for each species. Figure 3.13-2 depicts the number of listed species for each taxonomic group for the Colorado Plateau Coal Region. Figure 3.13-2 Number of Listed Species for Each Taxonomic Group in the Colorado Plateau Coal Region

3.13.2.1 Vascular Plants Seventeen Federally listed vascular plant species (or 46 percent of the total number of Federally listed species in the counties evaluated in this coal region) are found in the Colorado Plateau Coal Region. The species listed as Threatened include: Heliotrope Milkvetch (Astragalus montii), Jones Cycladenia (Cycladenia humilis var jonesii), Maguire Daisy (Erigeron maguirei), Dudley Bluffs bladderpod (Lesquerella congesta), Winkler Pincushion Cactus (Pediocactus winkleri), Dudley Bluffs twinpod (Physaria obcordata), Uinta Basin Hookless Cactus (Sclerocactus wetlandicus), Last Chance Townsendia (Townsendia aprica), the clay-loving wild buckwheat (Eriogonum pelinophilum) and the Colorado hookless cactus (Sclerocactus glaucus). The species listed as Endangered include: San Rafael Cactus (Pediocactus despainii), Clay Phacelia (Phacelia argillacea), Barneby Reed-mustard (Schoenocrambe barnebyi), Wright Fishhook Cactus (Sclerocactus wrightiae). Two plant species proposed for listing as threatened and one candidate species present in this coal region include: Parachute beardtongue (Penstemon debilis), DeBeque phacelia (Phacelia submutica), and White River beardtongue (Penstemon scariosus albifluvis), respectively.
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3.13.2.2 Crustaceans Currently, there are no Federally listed crustaceans in the study area of the Colorado Plateau Coal Region. 3.13.2.3 Mollusks Currently, there are no Federally listed mollusks in the study area of the Colorado Plateau Coal Region. 3.13.2.4 Insects There is one Federally listed insect in the study area of the Colorado Plateau Coal Region; the Uncompahgre fritillary butterfly (Boloria acrocnema) is listed as endangered. This comprises 3% of the total Federally protected species in this coal region. 3.13.2.5 Amphibians One Federally listed amphibian species (or 3 percent of the listed species) is found in the Colorado Plateau Coal Region. The Jemez Mountains salamander (Plethodon neomexicanus) is listed as a Candidate species. 3.13.2.6 Reptiles Currently, there are no Federally listed reptiles in the study area of the Colorado Plateau Coal Region. 3.13.2.7 Fish Fish comprise 16 percent of the Federally listed species for the Colorado Plateau Coal Region with a total of six species. Four fish species are listed as Endangered: the bonytail (Gila elegans), the Colorado River squawfish/pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus lucius), the humpback chub (Gila cypha), and the razorback sucker (Xyrauchen texanus). The Apache trout (Oncorhynchus apache) and the loach minnow (Tiaroga cobitis) are listed as Threatened. 3.13.2.8 Birds Nineteen percent of the species listed for the Colorado Plateau Coal Region are Federally listed or protected birds (eight species). The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is protected under the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act. The whooping crane (Grus americana) and the southwestern willow flycatcher (Empidonax traillii extimus) are listed as Endangered. The Mexican spotted owl (Strix occidentalis lucida) is listed as Threatened. The mountain plover (Charadrius montanus) is listed as Proposed Threatened. The greater sage grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), the yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus), and the Sprague’s pipit (Anthus spragueii) are listed as Candidate species. Migratory birds have special status and are protected under the MBTA. Migratory pathways occur in the Colorado Plateau Coal Region. Appendix 4.13-C contains additional discussion of migratory flyways and how the migratory flyways intersect with the various coal regions in the United States.

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3.13.2.9 Mammals Mammals comprise 14 percent of the Federally listed species for the Colorado Plateau Coal Region with a total of five species. The black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) is listed as Endangered; the Canada lynx (Lynx canadensis), the Utah prairie dog (Cynomus parvidens), and the grizzly bear (Ursus arctos) are listed as Threatened, and Gunnison’s prairie dog (Cynomys gunnisoni), is a Candidate species. As a larger mammal, the Canada lynx primarily preys on snowshoe hare and is typically found in the subalpine forest of the western United States with high densities of snowshoe hare populations (USFWS, 2010). Given that the abundance of snowshoe hare is the species’ major limiting factor, low densities of snowshoe hare result in declines of lynx populations despite lynxes feeding on other prey (i.e., birds, squirrels, beavers, mice, voles, shrews, and fish) (USFWS, 2010). Home ranges of lynx generally encompass between 12 square miles to 83 square miles and are often extended to increase food resources (USFWS, 2010). The primary cause for the species’ decline was the lack of habitat conservation for the lynx and snowshoe hare for Federally managed lands (USFWS, 2010). Other factors contributing to the species listing include habitat loss or alteration and mortalities due to road kill (USFWS, 2010).

3.13.3 Gulf Region Coal Region
In the Gulf Region Coal Region, there is a total of 23 Federally listed species, including 18 terrestrial species, 4 aquatic species, and 1 semi-aquatic species, for the 13 counties with surface mines comprising the study area of the coal region. The listed species include birds, fish, mollusks, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and vascular plants. Each taxonomic group is discussed below. Table 3.13-3 presents the federally listed species for the Gulf Region Coal Region and the known cause(s) of decline for each species. Figure 3.13-3 depicts the number of listed species for each taxonomic group for the Gulf Region Coal Region.

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Figure 3.13-3

Number of Listed Species for Each Taxonomic Group in the Gulf Region Coal Region

3.13.3.1 Vascular Plants Five Federally listed vascular plant species (or 22 percent of the Federally listed species reported for the counties evaluated in this coal region) are found in the Gulf Region Coal Region. Three species are listed as Endangered: large-fruited sand-verbena (Abronia macrocarpa), the Navasota ladies'-tresses (Spiranthes parksii), and the slender rush-pea (Hoffmannseggia tenella). Earth-fruit (Geocarpon minimum) is listed as Threatened, and the Neches River rose-mallow (Hibiscus dasycalyx) is listed as a Candidate species. 3.13.3.2 Crustaceans Currently, there are no Federally listed crustaceans in the study area of the Gulf Region Coal Region. 3.13.3.3 Mollusks One Federally listed mollusc species (or 4 percent of the listed species) is found in the Gulf Region Coal Region. The freshwater mussel species, the stirrupshell (Quadrula stapes), is listed as Endangered. 3.13.3.4 Insects Currently, there are no Federally listed insects in the study area of the Gulf Region Coal Region.
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3.13.3.5 Amphibians One Federally listed amphibian species (or 4 percent of the listed species) is found in the Gulf Region Coal Region. The Houston toad (Bufo (Anaxyrus) houstonensis) is listed as Endangered. 3.13.3.6 Reptiles One Federally listed reptile (or 4 percent of the total) is found in the Gulf Region Coal Region. The Louisiana pine snake (Pituophis ruthveni) is listed as a Candidate species. 3.13.3.7 Fish Fish comprise 13 percent of the Federally listed species for the Gulf Region Coal Region. The three fish species are listed as Candidate species and include the sharpnose shiner (Notropis oxyrhynchus), the smalleye shiner (Notropis buccula), and the pearl darter (Percina aurora). 3.13.3.8 Birds Thirty percent of the species listed for the Gulf Region Coal Region are Federally listed or protected birds with a total of seven species. Four bird species listed as Endangered include the interior least tern (Sterna antillarum athalassos), the whooping crane (Grus americana), the Northern Aplomado falcon (Falco femoralis septentrionalis), and the red-cockaded woodpecker (Picoides borealis). The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is protected under the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act. The piping plover (Charadrius melodus) is listed as Threatened and the mountain plover (Charadrius montanus) is listed as Proposed Threatened. Migratory birds have special status and are protected under the MBTA. Migratory pathways occur in the Gulf Region Coal Region. Appendix 4.13-C contains additional discussion of migratory flyways and how the migratory flyways intersect with the various coal regions in the United States. 3.13.3.9 Mammals Mammals comprise 22 percent of the Federally listed species for the Gulf Region Coal Region with a total of five species. Two mammals listed as Endangered include the Gulf Coast jaguarondi (Herpailurus yagouaroundi cacomitli) and the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis). The red wolf (Canis rufus), a keystone species for the Gulf Region, is also listed as Endangered. As a habitat generalist, the red wolf’s home range varies, with ranges reported between 65 square kilometers and 200 square kilometers (Riley and McBride, 1975). Red wolves typically do not hunt in packs and are opportunistic predators with prey consisting of rabbits, rodents, deer, birds, nutria, and carrion. Historically, the red wolf was exterminated from its range in the southeastern United States due to human-caused mortality (i.e., hunting, trapping, poisoning). Historical decline
was also due to habitat loss/fragmentation, canid diseases, and hybridization with the coyote (USFWS, 2009). Reintroduction efforts in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park were unsuccessful (USFWS, 2009). Currently, the red wolf only exists in one major population in northeastern North Carolina, and many threats including habitat fragmentation, gunshot mortality, canid disease outbreaks, and coyotes currently exist for that population (USFWS, 2009).

Two additional larger mammal species listed for the Gulf Region Coal Region include the American black bear (Ursus americanus) and the Louisiana black bear (Ursus americanus
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luteolus), a subspecies of the American black bear, both of which are listed as Listed Threatened. Home ranges for black bears are relatively large, remote areas of land encompassing bottomland hardwood forests and marsh/wetland areas (Texas Parks and Wildlife Department [TPWD], 2010). As opportunistic omnivores, black bears will forage on anything readily available with a variable diet of vegetation and animals (i.e., vertebrates and invertebrates) (TPWD, 2010). Logging and development, which have resulted in habitat loss and fragmentation, have caused the species’ decline along with human disturbance and human-related mortality (TPWD, 2010).

3.13.4 Illinois Basin Coal Region
In the Illinois Basin Coal Region, there is a total of 28 Federally listed species, 11 terrestrial species and 17 aquatic species, for the 27 counties with surface mining comprising the study area of the coal region. The listed species include birds, insects, mammals, mollusks, fish, vascular plants, and reptiles. Each taxonomic group is discussed below. Table 3.13-3 presents the listed species for the Illinois Basin Coal Region along with the known cause(s) of decline for each species. Figure 3.13-4 depicts the number of different listed species for each taxonomic group for the Illinois Basin Coal Region. Figure 3.13-4 Number of Listed Species for Each Taxonomic Group in the Illinois Basin Coal Region

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3.13.4.1 Vascular Plants Two Federally listed vascular plant species (or 7 percent of the total listed species) are found in the Illinois Basin Coal Region. The Eastern prairie fringed orchid (Platanthera leucophaea) is listed as Threatened and the Kentucky Glade Cress (Leavenworthia exigua laciniata) is a Candidate species. 3.13.4.2 Crustaceans Currently, there are no Federally listed crustaceans in the study area of the Illinois Basin Coal Region. 3.13.4.3 Mollusks Fifty-seven percent of the Federally listed species for the Illinois Basin Coal Region are mollusks. Stream modifications (especially channelization), increased nutrient and sediment loads, and strip mining activities and the consequent influence on pH changes threaten crayfish species in the Illinois Basin (Simon and Thoma, 2006). The degree of crayfish imperilment may exceed that of fishes, and is second only to the most imperiled group in North America, freshwater mussels; conservation biologists estimate that 48 percent of the crayfish fauna deserve conservation status (Butler et al., 2003). Physiographic integrity (i.e., restriction to a particular province or subsection) is displayed by many crayfish (Butler et al., 2003). This endemism leaves some species of crayfish extremely vulnerable to extirpation as a result of single catastrophic events. In addition, within a geographic area many species of crayfish have specific habitat requirements, limiting the availability of habitable space within a home range (Pennak, 1989). USFWS and state natural resource department ecosystem teams are generating reports and considering management strategies for potentially imperiled crayfish across the Illinois Basin Coal Region. Currently, there is a relatively high number of federally or locally endangered crayfish in the Illinois Basin; this number will likely increase based on the current state of crayfish populations and the ongoing research documenting the status of crayfish species across the region (Fetzner, 2010). All 16 of the Federally listed mollusc species are freshwater mussels. Twelve freshwater mussel species are listed as Endangered: the catspaw (Epioblasma obliquata obliquata), the clubshell (Pleurobema clava), the eastern fanshell pearlymussel (Cyprogenia stegaria), the littlewing pearlymussel (Pegias fibula), the northern riffleshell (Epioblasma torulosa rangiana), the orangefoot pimpleback (Plethobasus cooperianus), the pink mucket (Lampsilis abrupt), the ring pink (Obovaria retusa), the rough pigtoe (Pleurobema plenum), the tubercled blossom (Epioblasma torulosa torulosa), the fat pocketbook (Potamilus capax), and the white wartyback (Plethobasus cicatricosus). Four freshwater mussel species are listed as Candidate species: the fluted kidneyshell (Ptychobranchus subtentum), the rabbitsfoot (Quadrula cylindrica cylindrical), the spectaclecase (Cumberlandia monodonta), and the sheepnose (Plethobasus cyphyus).

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3.13.4.4 Insects Two Federally listed insect species (or 7 percent of the listed species) are found in the Illinois Basin Coal Region. The American burying beetle (Nicrophorus americanus) is listed as Endangered and the Icebox Cave Beetle (Pseudanophthalmus frigidus) is a Candidate species. 3.13.4.5 Amphibians Currently, there are no Federally listed amphibians in the study area of the Illinois Basin Coal Region. 3.13.4.6 Reptiles Eleven percent of the Federally listed species listed for the Illinois Basin Coal Region are reptiles with a total of three species. Two of the reptile species are listed as Threatened: the copperbelly water snake (Nerodia erythrogaster neglecta) and the smooth green snake (Opheodrys (Liochlorophis) vernalis). The Eastern massasauga (Sistrurus catenatus) is listed as a Candidate species. 3.13.4.7 Fish One Federally listed fish species (or 4 percent of the listed species) is found in the Illinois Basin Coal Region. The pallid sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus albus) is listed as Endangered. 3.13.4.8 Birds Seven percent of the species listed for the Illinois Basin Coal Region are Federally listed or protected birds. There is one listed bird species, the interior least tern (Sterna antillarum athalassos), which is listed as Endangered. The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is protected under the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act. Migratory birds have special status and are protected under the MBTA. Migratory pathways occur in the Illinois Basin Coal Region. Appendix 4.13-C contains additional discussion of migratory flyways and how the migratory flyways intersect with the various coal regions in the United States. 3.13.4.9 Mammals Two Federally listed mammal species (or 7 percent of the listed species) are found in the Illinois Basin Coal Region. The gray bat (Myotis grisescens) and the Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) are listed as Endangered.

3.13.5 Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region
In the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region, there is a total of 25 Federally listed species, 18 terrestrial species, six aquatic species, and one semi-aquatic species, for the 19 counties with active surface mines. The listed species include birds, fish, insects, mammals, amphibians, and vascular plants. Each taxonomic group is discussed below. Table 3.13-3 presents the Federally listed species for the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region along with the known cause(s) of decline for each species. Figure 3.13-5 depicts the
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number of listed species for each taxonomic group for the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region. Figure 3.13-5 Number of Listed Species for Each Taxonomic Group for the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region

3.13.5.1 Vascular Plants Two Federally listed vascular plant species (or 8 percent of the listed species) are found in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region. The blowout penstemon (Penstemon haydenii) is listed as Endangered, and the Ute ladies’ tresses (Spiranthes diluvialis) is listed as Threatened. 3.13.5.2 Crustaceans Currently, there are no Federally listed crustaceans in the study area of the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region. 3.13.5.3 Mollusks Currently, there are no Federally listed mollusks in the study area of the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region.

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3.13.5.4 Insects One Federally listed insect species (or 4 percent of the listed species) is found in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region. The Dakota skipper (Hesperia dacotae) is listed as a Candidate species. 3.13.5.5 Amphibians One Federally listed amphibian species (or 4 percent of the listed species) is found in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region. The boreal toad (Bufo boreas boreas) is listed as a Candidate species. 3.13.5.6 Reptiles Currently, there are no Federally listed reptiles in the study area of the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region. 3.13.5.7 Fish Fish comprise 24 percent of the Federally listed species listed for the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region with a total of six species. Five fish species are listed as Endangered and include the bonytail (Gila elegans), the Colorado River squawfish/ pikeminnow (Ptychocheilus lucius), the humpback chub (Gila cypha), the pallid sturgeon (Scaphirhynchus albus), and the razorback sucker (Xyrauchen texanus). The Arctic grayling (Thymallus arcticus) is listed as a Candidate species. 3.13.5.8 Birds Forty-four percent of the species listed for the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region are Federally listed or protected birds with a total of 11 species. Four bird species are listed as Endangered: the greater sage-grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus), the least tern (Sterna antillarum), the southwestern willow flycatcher (Empidonax traillii extimus), and the whooping crane (Grus americana). The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) are protected under the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act. The Mexican spotted owl (Strix occidentalis lucida) and the piping plover (Charadrius melodus circumcinctus) are listed as Threatened. The mountain plover (Charadrius montanus) is listed as Proposed Threatened. The yellow-billed cuckoo (Coccyzus americanus) and the Sprague’s pipit (Anthus spragueii) are listed as a Candidate species. Migratory birds have special status and are protected under the MBTA. Migratory pathways occur in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region. Appendix 4.13-C contains additional discussion of migratory flyways and how the migratory flyways intersect with the various coal regions in the United States. 3.13.5.9 Mammals Mammals comprise 16 percent of the Federally listed species for the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Coal Region with a total of four species. Two of the smaller mammal species listed include the black-footed ferret (Mustela nigripes) as Endangered and the Preble's meadow jumping mouse (Zapus hudsonius preblei) as Threatened.
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The two larger mammal species listed include the Canada lynx (Lynx Canadensis) as Threatened and the gray wolf (Canis lupis) as Endangered/ Threatened. Refer to the Colorado Plateau Coal Region section for a discussion on the Canada lynx. As a keystone predator, the gray wolf is an integral part of the ecosystem to which it belongs. The gray wolf is listed as Listed Endangered for the lower 48 states, except where listed as an Experimental Population (Non-Essential) and in Minnesota where the gray wolf is listed as Listed Threatened. Home ranges are large and variable depending on the location, with ranges between 50 square miles to more than 1,000 square miles (USFWS, 2007). Territory size averages approximately 780 square kilometers in the Glacier National Park area in Montana (Bangs and Fritts, 1993). Typically hunting in packs, gray wolves predominantly prey on ungulates, but may also prey on beaver, snowshoe hare, rodents, and carrion. In Glacier National Park, gray wolves primarily prey on white-tailed deer (Bangs and Fritts, 1993). Gray wolves are present in wilderness not subject to human pressures. Historically, wolves were extirpated from most of the contiguous United States due to humancaused mortality (i.e., hunting, trapping, poisoning). Other, lesser causes in the species’ decline include reduction in prey populations (i.e., ungulate herds) and habitat loss. In recent years, reintroduced populations in Yellowstone National Park and central Idaho have been successful (USFWS, 2007).

3.13.6 Northwest Coal Region
In the Northwest Coal Region, there is a total of 5 Federally listed species, 4 terrestrial species, and 1 aquatic species, for the single “county” (i.e., “Census Area”) with active coal mining in the coal region. The listed species include birds, fish, and mammals. Each taxonomic group is discussed below. Table 3.13-2 presents the listed species for the Northwest Coal Region along with the known cause(s) of decline for each species. Figure 3.13-6 depicts the number of listed species for each taxonomic group for the Northwest Coal Region.

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Figure 3.13-6

Number of Listed Species for Each Taxonomic Group for the Northwest Coal Region

3.13.6.1 Vascular Plants Currently, there are no Federally listed vascular plants in the study area of the Northwest Coal Region. 3.13.6.2 Crustaceans Currently, there are no Federally listed crustaceans in the study area of the Northwest Coal Region. 3.13.6.3 Mollusks Currently, there are no Federally listed mollusks in the study area of the Northwest Coal Region. 3.13.6.4 Insects Currently, there are no Federally listed insects in the study area of the Northwest Coal Region. 3.13.6.5 Amphibians Currently, there are no Federally listed amphibians in the study area of the Northwest Coal Region.
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3.13.6.6 Reptiles Currently, there are no Federally listed reptiles in the study area of the Northwest Coal Region. 3.13.6.7 Fish One Federally protected fish species (or 20 percent of the listed species) is found in the Northwest Coal Region. The green sturgeon (Acipenser medirostris) is listed as a Candidate species. 3.13.6.8 Birds Sixty percent of the Federally listed species for the Northwest Coal Region are birds with a total of three species. Two species are listed as Candidate species: the Kittliz’s murrelet (Brachyramphus brevirostris) and the yellow-billed loon (Gavia adamsii). The Queen Charlotte goshawk (Accipiter gentilis laingi) is listed as Proposed Endangered. Migratory birds have special status and are protected under the MBTA. Migratory pathways occur in the Northwest Coal Region. Appendix 4.13-C contains additional discussion of migratory flyways and how the migratory flyways intersect with the various coal regions in the United States. 3.13.6.9 Mammals One Federally listed mammal species (or 20 percent of the listed species) is found in the Northwest Coal Region. The wood bison (Bison bison athabascae) is listed as Endangered. Bison are considered highly mobile within their limited range of Alaska and Canada (Larter and Gates, 1994). The wood bison’s home range encompasses between 706 square kilometers to 1,240 square kilometers in areas with less abundant foraging capacity and 170 square kilometers to 435 square kilometers in areas with abundant food resources (Larter and Gates, 1994). Food availability dictates the bison’s diet. The winter diet consists mainly of sedges, whereas the summer
diet is more diverse and consists of sedges, grasses, and willow with lichen dominating in the fall (Larter and Gates, 1991). Disease, hybridization with Plains bison, predation by wolves, and loss of

habitat are the primary causes of the species’ decline, resulting in small remnant herds across the species’ natural range (Gates et al., 2001). Bison have been successfully reintroduced in several Canadian parks and preserves (Gates et al., 2001).

3.13.7 Other Western Interior Coal Region
In the Other Western Interior Coal Region, there is a total of 22 Federally listed species, 12 terrestrial species, and 9 aquatic species, for the 9 counties with surface mining comprising the study area of the coal region. The listed species include birds, fish, insects, mammals, mollusks, and vascular plants. Each taxonomic group is discussed below. Table 3.13-3 presents the listed species for the Other Western Interior Coal Region and the known cause(s) of decline for each species. Figure 3.13-7 depicts the number of listed species for each taxonomic group for the Other Western Interior Coal Region.

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Figure 3.13-7

Number of Listed Species for Each Taxonomic Group for the Other Western Interior Coal Region

3.13.7.1 Vascular Plants Two Federally listed vascular plant species (or 9 percent of the listed species) are found in the Other Western Interior Coal Region. The western prairie fringed orchid (Platanthera praeclara) and Mead’s milkweed (Asclepias meadii) are listed as Threatened. 3.13.7.2 Crustaceans Currently, there are no Federally listed crustaceans in the study area of the Other Western Interior Coal Region. 3.13.7.3 Mollusks Twenty-three percent of the Federally listed species for the Other Western Interior Coal Region are mollusks. All five mollusc species are freshwater mussels, which are in decline nationwide. One of the significant concerns with mussels is the limited geographic distribution of many mussel species, which are endemic to small areas with some limited to single watersheds. These mussel species are extremely vulnerable to extirpation as a result of single catastrophic events. Three freshwater mussel species are listed as Endangered: the Ouachita rock pocketbook (Arkansia wheeleri), the scaleshell (Leptodea leptodon), and the winged mapleleaf (Quadrula
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fragosa). The neosho mucket (Lampsilis rafinesqueana) and the spectaclecase (Cumberlandia monodonta) are listed as Candidate species. 3.13.7.4 Insects One Federally listed insect species (or 5 percent of the total listed species in the study area in this coal region) is found in the Other Western Interior Coal Region. The American burying beetle (Nicrophorus americanus) is listed as Endangered. 3.13.7.5 Amphibians Currently, there are no Federally listed amphibians in the study area of the Other Western Interior Coal Region. 3.13.7.6 Reptiles Currently, there are no Federally listed reptiles in the study area of the Other Western Interior Coal Region. 3.13.7.7 Fish Fish comprise 18 percent of the Federally listed species for the Other Western Interior Coal Region with a total of four species. Three fish species are listed as Threatened: the Arkansas River shiner (Notropis girardi), the leopard darter (Percina pantherina), and the Neosho madtom (Noturus placidus). The Arkansas darter (Etheostoma cragini) is listed as a Candidate species. 3.13.7.8 Birds Thirty-six percent of the species listed for the Other Western Interior Coal Region are Federally listed or protected birds (total of eight species). The interior least tern (Sterna antillarum athalassos), the least tern (Sterna antillarum), Eskimo curlew (Numenius borealis), and the whooping crane (Grus americana) are listed as Endangered. The piping plover (Charadrius melodus) is listed as Threatened. The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos) are protected under the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act. The mountain plover (Charadrius montanus) is listed as Proposed Threatened. Migratory birds have special status and are protected under the MBTA. Migratory pathways occur in the Other Western Interior Coal Region. Appendix 4.13-C contains additional discussion of migratory flyways and how the migratory flyways intersect with the various coal regions in the United States. 3.13.7.9 Mammals Mammals comprise 9 percent of the Federally listed species for the Other Western Interior Coal Region. The two species of bats, the gray bat (Myotis grisescens) and the Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis), are listed as Endangered.

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3.14 WETLANDS MANAGEMENT
3.14.1 Regulations
Wetlands can be described as “the halfway world between terrestrial and aquatic ecosytems, exhibiting some of the characteristics of each system” (Mitsch and Gosselink 2007). The Clean Water Act (CWA) defines a wetland as “those areas that are inundated or saturated by surface or ground water at a frequency and duration sufficient to support, and that under normal circumstances do support, a prevalence of vegetation typically adapted for life in saturated soil conditions”(CFR 33 Part 328). Commonly used terms for wetlands include, among other terms, swamp, marsh, bog, wet meadow, fen, pocosin, pothole, and vernal pool. Wetlands provide a number of ecosystem services that benefit humans. Wetlands help to control floods and erosion, trap sediments, remove excess nutrients, recharge and discharge groundwater, purify water, process chemical and organic waste, and a variety of other functions (Mitsch and Gosselink 2007). Wetlands also provide habitat for nearly 5,000 species of plants, one-third of all species of birds, including all species of ducks and geese, and 190 species of amphibians in the U.S. (Natural Resources Conservation Service n.d.) Wetlands also support a large number of rare species of plants and animals. Because wetlands provide important ecosystem functions and support many species, there are a number of federal and state regulations protecting wetlands. The federal CWA is the overarching law protecting wetlands. Since an objective of the project is to improve the coordination of the SMCRA permitting process with the CWA permitting process, the portions of these federal regulations applicable to wetlands are summarized here. Section 404 of the CWA gives the USACE the responsibility for implementing a regulatory program for determining boundaries of wetlands and issuing permits for impacts. Not all wetlands are protected under the CWA. Recent Supreme Court decisions have clarified that only “waters of the United States” are jurisdictional under the CWA. Waters of the United States include traditional navigable waterways such as the Mississippi River and non-navigable streams and wetlands that have a clear hydrological connection to traditional navigable waterways (EPA 2008). This means that some wetlands, such as many prairie potholes in the Midwest and small depressional wetlands located on hilltops in Appalachia, are not protected under the CWA. These wetlands are referred to as “isolated wetlands.” Although they are not hydrologically connected to other streams and navigable waters on the surface, these wetlands are often connected to groundwater and are biologically connected through the movement of wildlife. Currently, wetlands are not directly protected under SMCRA. Section 816.41, Protection of the Hydrologic Balance, and Section 780.16, Fish, Wildlife, and Related Environmental Values, are the applicable parts of SMCRA that address the functions wetlands serve in the environment. Impacts on wetlands can lead to a change in the hydrology of an area and to the loss of wildlife habitat and biodiversity in an area. As such, the loss of functions provided by wetlands are protected under SMCRA. Because there is no distinction as to the jurisdiction under the CWA
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with regards to SMCRA, all wetlands are subject to consideration of impacts in the issuance of a coal mining permit. Many of the states within the coal bearing regions have laws that specifically protect wetlands however most do not. Table 3.14-1 lists each of the states within the coal bearing regions and a summary of their wetlands protection programs. Only 16 of the 25 states have state laws specific to protecting wetlands. Table 3.14-1. Coal Bearing Region State Wetland Regulation Summary Coal Bearing Region Coal Bearing State Kentucky West Virginia Virginia Appalachian Basin Alabama Ohio Pennsylvania Maryland State Program Summary No state law protecting wetlands No state law protecting wetlands Virginia Tidal Wetlands Act and Nontidal Wetlands Act No state law protecting wetlands Ohio Isolated Wetlands Rule and Wetland Antidegradation Rule State Programmatic Permit Program Tidal Wetlands Act; Nontidal Wetlands Act; Chesapeake Bay Critical Area Act No state law protecting wetlands Colorado Dept of Public Health and Environment 5 CCR 1002-31 No state law protecting wetlands No state law protecting wetlands No state law protecting wetlands No state law protecting wetlands No state law protecting wetlands Coastal Use Guidelines and Wetlands Management Statute Coastal Wetlands Protection Act No state law protecting wetlands Section 401 Water Quality Certification

Arizona Colorado Plateau Coal Bearing Region Colorado New Mexico Utah Alabama Arkansas Kentucky Gulf Coast Lignite and Bituminous Coal Bearing Area Louisiana Mississippi Missouri Tennessee

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Coal Bearing Region

Coal Bearing State

State Program Summary and Aquatic Resource Alteration Permits Section 401 Water Quality Certification and Texas Water Code Interagency Wetland Policy Act of 1989; Floodplain Management Statute State Regulated Wetlands (IN State Law IC) 13-18-22, Floodways (Indiana Code), Water Pollution Control Act, Inland Lake Preservation Act No state law protecting wetlands No state law protecting wetlands Colorado Dept of Public Health and Environment 5 CCR 1002-31 No state law protecting wetlands ND Cent Code #61-01-22, 61-02-14, and 61-02-20; ND Cent. Code #61-32-01 WS 35-11-301 to WS 35-11-313; WHY Stat ##89-849 to 89-862 No state law protecting wetlands (although there are some standards implemented by AK Dept of Env. Conservation) Water Pollution Control Act, Shoreline Management Act of 1971, Growth Management Act of 1990 Department of State Lands Permit for Wetland Disturbance No state law protecting wetlands No state law protecting wetlands No state law protecting wetlands

Texas

Illinois

Illinois Basin

Indiana

Kentucky Missouri

Colorado Northern Rocky Mountain and Great Plains Basin Montana North Dakota Wyoming

Alaska

Northwest Washington

Oregon

Kansas Other Western Interior 1 Missouri Oklahoma

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3.14.2 Wetlands Status and Trends
Estimates of the total acreage of wetlands that existed within the coal-producing regions presettlement vs. what is present today varies from source to source. Estimates of the original extent of wetlands in the U.S. range between 221 to 211 million acres (Dahl 1990). Nevertheless, the number and acreage of wetlands has historically been on the decline over the last 200 years as a result of human activities. A large portion of that decline began with the passage of the Swamp Lands Act of 1850. Approximately 45 million acres of wetland loss is attributed to this legislation (National Research Council 1995). The Swamp Lands Act enabled states to take possession of wetlands and begin draining them so they could be farmed. The trend of wetland loss continued unhampered until the 1970s with the passage of the CWA. Twenty-two states have lost at least 50% of their original wetlands, mainly located in the eastern U.S. and Midwest (Mitsch and Gosselink 2007; Dahl et al. 1990; Dahl 2006). The trend of wetland loss slowed through the 1980s. In 1988, the “No Net Loss Policy” was put into place slowing the rate of loss even more. There were an estimated 107.7 million acres of wetland in the U.S. in 2004. One study conducted by the USFWS actually reported an increase of 191,750 acres between 1998 and 2004 as a result of regulatory and non-regulatory restoration programs (Dahl 2006). It should be noted that ponds are considered wetlands because they are consistent with the definition of a freshwater wetland in “Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States” (Cowardin et al. 1979). Freshwater pond acreage accounted for the most increase of any wetland type. Without the increased pond acreage, wetland gains would not have surpassed wetland losses between 1998 and 2004 (Dahl 2006). Despite regulations and a positive trend of wetland acreage, wetlands are thought to be lost at an estimated rate of 290,000 acres per year (Dahl 2006). Although human activity is attributed to the major causes of wetland loss, there are natural threats and indirect causes such as erosion, subsidence, sea level rise, climate change, droughts, hurricanes and other large storms (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2009b). The majority of the wetland loss occurring today is the loss of marine and estuarine wetlands, which is caused by coastal erosion. Freshwater wetlands loss is mainly caused by urban and rural development (Dahl 2006). Figure 3.14-1 depicts the location of wetlands lost to urban and rural development within the coal regions. Peat mining is also a cause of loss of freshwater wetlands and is restricted to a few areas of the country.

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Figure 3.14-1

Wetland Loss Areas

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3.14.3 Where Wetlands are Found
Wetlands are found in nearly every county in the United States (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, December 17, 2009) and are found within all of the coal-producing regions. Wetlands can be created and have been created unintentionally by ground disturbance, including surface coal mining (Atkins et al. 1998; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2005. Wetlands are typically located at the interface of a body of water such as an ocean, a lake, pond, or a stream. They are also found in other portions of the landscape remote from waterbodies. These isolated wetlands do not contain outlets. They are the result of groundwater at or near the soil surface or in depressional areas where enough water collects to create saturated (hydric) soils and support a wetland plant community (Mitsch and Gosselink 2007; Leibowitz 2003; Whigham and Jordan 2003). The USFWS maintains maps of the nation’s wetlands. The National Wetland Inventory (NWI) Program produces maps and a digital database of the status of wetlands. Not only does NWI provide the location and size of wetlands, it also provides the wetland cover type according to
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“Classification of Wetlands and Deepwater Habitats of the United States” (Cowardin et al. 1979). This classification system often is referred to as the “Cowardin Classification System,” after the primary author. The classification system is based on the plants, soils, and frequency of flooding. Open water areas such as ponds and streams not fitting the definition of a wetland are also classified under this system and are included on NWI maps. The flooding regime and vegetative composition of wetlands provide important habitat for many species of aquatic macroinvertebrates, amphibians, and reptiles. Wetlands are mapped and classified for the NWI through aerial interpretation and limited field verification. Attempts are made to update and increase the accuracy of the mapping at a rate of 1% to 2% of the U.S. per year. On average, most of the NWI mapping was performed using aerial photography from the mid-1980s. Although land use and landscapes have changed over the last 25 years, many of the mapped NWI wetlands are found in some form at those locations (Tiner 2009), thus providing a valid, consistent source of the location and size of wetlands within all of the coal regions. Table 3.14-2 summarizes the general wetland cover types and acres of each cover type according to NWI data. 3.14.3.1 Appalachian Basin The Appalachian basin is characterized by steep slopes with high gradient streams and wide river valleys. Large wetlands are commonly found on floodplains along rivers and perennial streams (riparian wetlands). Large wetland complexes consisting of a variety of habitats can be found in the floodplains within large river systems such as the Ohio River, which is in the Appalachian basin. Headwater streams found on the steep slopes are high-gradient with a small floodplain, typically located within the scoured channel, and thus wetlands are typically absent next to these streams. Instead of being associated with a stream channel, wetlands are found in depressional areas at the top of mountains and along the slopes (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2005). These wetlands are often isolated and therefore are not afforded protection under the CWA. NWI data indicates there are approximately 716,723 acres of wetlands within the Appalachian basin (Table 3.14-2). Approximately 60% or more than 427,000 acres consist of open water habitats such as lakes, ponds, and rivers. The majority of the wetlands present in this region are forested wetlands. This region also experienced wetland loss due to rural development as depicted in Figure 3.14-1 3.14.3.2 Colorado Plateau Coal Bearing Region The Colorado Plateau coal-bearing region is located in the arid western U.S. The dry climate limits wetland development and as a result wetlands comprise less than 2% of the region (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2006; U.S. Geological Survey 1996). The wetlands that do exist in this region are mainly found in association with streams, ponds, lakes, and rivers. The majority of the wetlands within this region, not including open water areas, are emergent riparian wetlands, oxbow lakes, marshes, cienegas, and bosques (USGS 1996). The hydrology supporting these wetland communities is based on yearly snowmelt and late summer thunderstorms. They are typically found in higher elevations and have a richer diversity of plant species than the adjacent uplands (Rocchio 2005). Studies in Colorado have found that 75% of
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Colorado’s wildlife species including fish, crustaceans, spiders and insects and 27% of the state’s breeding birds use wetlands (EPA 2006; Rocchio 2005) Big game species such as deer, moose, and elk seek out wetlands for lush and nutritious grasses. Other wetlands are seasonal and can be dry for more than one year at a time. Often these wetlands are playas (USGS 1996). Playas are typically shallow depressions within the desert basins or abandoned stream channels that are occasionally wet due to stream flow or shallow ground water (USACE 1986.). These wetland are also heavily influenced by snowmelt and rare but heavy precipitation events. This factor along with the salinity of the soil has a strong influence on the plant community and plant coverage (Rocchio 2006). These wetlands are known to support threatened and endangered species, including many endemic species (Rocchio 2006; USGS 1996). There are only 70,953-acres of wetlands within the 27,262,755-acre region (see Table 3.14-2). Sixty eight percent or approximately 48,483 acres are open water habitats. This means that only 22,469 acres of wetland are located in this region. In other words, wetlands comprise only 0.08% of the Colorado Plateau coal-bearing region. 3.14.3.3 Gulf Coast Lignite and Bituminous Coal-Bearing Area The majority of the wetlands located within the Gulf Coast lignite and bituminous coal-bearing region are in the Mississippi River basin. Wetlands occupy more than 13% of Mississippi, and freshwater forested wetlands comprise the majority of wetlands within the state of Louisiana. Bottom-land forests, swamps, and freshwater marshes within floodplain areas of rivers account for most of Mississippi's wetland acreage (USGS 1996). In addition, the majority of all the wetlands found in the state of Texas are located in the eastern, coal-bearing portion of the state. These wetlands are also forested wetlands occurring within the floodplains and bottomlands of rivers (USGS 1996). Forested wetlands account for more than 4 million acres within this coalbearing region and comprise 79% of the total wetlands (Table 3.14-2). The wetlands in this region are important to wildlife, especially migrating and overwintering birds. They are also vital to the local economies. There also are coastal wetlands located in this region in extreme western Florida. These wetlands are considered estuarine as they are influenced by the tides. Salinities in these areas range from very saline (hypersaline) to slightly saline (oligohaline) (Cowardin et al. 1979). Approximately 7,777-acres of estuarine wetlands occur within the Gulf Coast lignite and bituminous coal-bearing region. This represents less than 0.01% of the region (Table 3.14-2). 3.14.3.4 Illinois Basin The major land use in the Illinois Basin is agriculture. This portion of the country converted a large percentage of its wetland to farmland in the late 1800s and early 1900s (Dahl 2006; USGS 1996). Illinois has lost an estimated 90% of its wetlands (USGS 1996). Currently there is an estimated 1,253,891 acres remaining, of which three-fourths have been modified by human activities. More than 57% of the wetlands found in Illinois are found in the floodplains of large rivers in the southern portion of the state (Illinois Department of Natural Resources 2010). The southwestern portion of Indiana and western Kentucky experienced similar wetlands losses and
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contains similar wetland habitat. The entire Illinois basin contains approximately 1.4 million acres of wetland (Table 3.14-2). The bottomland forested wetlands and floodplain forests in this region are home to the copperbelly water snake (Nerodia erythrogaster neglecta). This species was proposed by the USFWS to be a threatened species and coal mining was identified as a major cause of habitat fragmentation and loss for this species. In 1994 through 1996, Conservation Agreements were made with coal industry groups and state mining agencies to reduce impacts on bottomland forested wetlands and floodplain forests that potentially provide habitat for copperbelly water snakes (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 2010). 3.14.3.5 Northern Rocky Mountain and Great Plains Basin Wetlands comprise only a small portion of the Northern Rocky Mountain and Great Plains Basin coal-producing Region. Northeastern Montana and western North Dakota and South Dakota are a part of the Great Plains prairie pothole region (USFWS 2009). Prairie potholes are characterized by shallow depressions, generally round in shape, formed by glaciers supporting emergent vegetation. In fact, there are more than 1 million acres of emergent wetland within this coal region (see Table 3.14-2). Many of these wetlands do not have inlets or outlets and are fed by run-off from the surrounding area or have a connection with groundwater but only for a limited time (Savage 2004). Sometimes the water in the potholes will dry up in the summer by evaporating. The wet-and-dry cycles are characteristic of the hydrology of the potholes and are essential to maintaining the wetland plant communities (Mitsch and Gosselink 2007). In addition, evaporation can concentrate salts in the water, making some potholes as salty as the sea (Savage 2004). The prairie pothole region located throughout the central portion of North America serves as the primary breeding grounds for waterfowl (Mitsch and Gosselink 2007). The USFWS reports an estimated 1.9 million breeding pairs of waterfowl in Montana and the western Dakotas in 2010. Their annual waterfowl breeding and habitat survey noted a decline in habitat conditions due to a number of years of low precipitation (Zimpfer et al. 2010). During dry years, water impoundments used for coal mining, livestock, and bentonite clay production in this region have served as alternative breeding habitat for waterfowl and as habitat for shorebirds (Uresk and Severson 1988). Wetlands located in the portions of Wyoming and Colorado that are a part of this coal producing region are also similar in characteristics to the prairie potholes of the Dakotas and Montana. The lower elevations contain short grass prairies, and northeastern Wyoming contains the highest density of breeding waterfowl. There are areas containing sage brush steppe and coniferous forested wetlands, depending on the elevation (Copeland et al. 2010). The climate is more arid and many of the emergent wetlands are considered playas. 3.14.3.6 Northwest Coal-Bearing Area This coal-bearing area includes Alaska, Washington, and very small areas within Oregon. The wetlands in each state are discussed individually because of the geographical extent of the Northwest coal-bearing area and large differences in wetland communities and distribution of
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wetlands. According to the NWI, there are more than 2.8 million acres of wetlands located in this region (see Table 3.14-2). An overwhelming majority of these wetlands are located within Alaska. 3.14.3.7 Alaska Forty-three percent of Alaska is wetland. Wetlands in the northern portions of Alaska, where the majority of the coal is mined in the state, are created by permafrost, glacial melt water, snow melt, beavers, springs, and tides. Permafrost is a frozen layer of soil substrate that is present throughout the year. The frozen layer traps water near the soil surface. The tundra wetlands located in northern Alaska are the breeding grounds for many species of shorebirds, ducks, geese, and swans. The majority of the wetland habitat present in this area is freshwater scrub/shrub. Coastal estuarine wetlands are also common (Hall et al. 1994). 3.14.3.8 Other Western Interior The other western interior coal-bearing region is located in the heart of the mid-west and has a diversity of wetland habitats. These include prairie potholes, bottomland hardwood forested wetlands, shrub/scrub wetlands, emergent marshes, wet meadows, fens, and riparian wetlands. These wetlands provide habitat for migrating waterfowl and passerine birds along the central flyway. According to the NWI, there are 787,082 acres of wetlands and 515,179 acres of open water habitat within this region (see Table 3.14-2). Agriculture is the primary land use in this region and has been for the last 200 years. As a result, more than 5 million acres of wetland were authorized to be drained in the states comprising the other western interior coal-bearing region (Dahol and Allord 1990). The dramatic loss of wetland in the mid-west has made it a focus area for restoration programs such as the U.S. Department of Agriculture Natural Resource Conservation Service’s (USDA NRCS) Wetland Reserve Program (WRP). At the end of 2000, the NRCS had restored approximately 102,707 acres of wetland in Iowa alone (Natural Resources Conservation Service n.d.). Table 3.14-2. Summary of Wetland Types and Acreage Found in Coal Producing Regions of the U.S. Coal Bearing Region Wetland Type Freshwater Emergent Wetland Freshwater Forested/Shrub Wetlands Freshwater Pond Appalachian Basin Lake Other Riverine Total Total Acres
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Estimated Total Acres 47,226 242,296 106,150 128,829 1,344 190,878 716,723 45,889,250

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Coal Bearing Region

Wetland Type % Wetland Freshwater Emergent Wetland Freshwater Forested/Shrub Wetland Freshwater Pond Lake

Estimated Total Acres 2 15,027 7,442 2,246 30,062 1,056 15,119

Colorado Plateau Coal Bearing Region

Other Riverine Total Total Acres % Wetland Estuarine and Marine Deepwater Estuarine and Marine Wetland Freshwater Emergent Wetland Freshwater Forested/Shrub Wetland Freshwater Pond Lake Other Riverine Total Total Acres % Wetland Freshwater Emergent Wetland Freshwater Forested/Shrub Wetland Freshwater Pond Lake Other Riverine Total Total Acres

70,953 27,262,755 0.3 1,901 7,777 310,837 4,021,744 200,778 358,934 3,250 165,948 5,071,169 122,681,564 4 97,340 886,777 165,982 220,394 1,825 29,679 1,401,997 39,386,180

Gulf Coast Lignite and Bituminous Coal Bearing Area

Illinois Basin

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Coal Bearing Region

Wetland Type % Wetland Freshwater Emergent Wetland Freshwater Forested/Shrub Wetland Freshwater Pond Lake Other Riverine Total Total Acres % Wetland Estuarine and Marine Deepwater Estuarine and Marine Wetland Freshwater Emergent Wetland Freshwater Forested/Shrub Wetland Freshwater Pond

Estimated Total Acres 4 1,083,397 91,407 111,501 919,950 15,147 75,801 2,297,203 96,661,471 2 1,813 7,799 1,438,509 641,439 100,476 611,312 62 44,334

Northern Rocky Mountain and Great Plains Basin

Northwest Coal Bearing Area

Lake Other Riverine Total Total Acres % Wetland

2,845,744 23,372,615 12

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Coal Bearing Region

Wetland Type Freshwater Emergent Wetland Freshwater Forested/Shrub Wetland Freshwater Pond Lake

Estimated Total Acres 168,317 618,765 278,973 188,466 1,294 46,447

Other Western Interior

Other Riverine Total Total Acres % Wetland

1,302,261 63,872,141 2 13,706,050

Total Acreage of Wetlands within the Coal Producing Regions of the U.S. 1

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