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CHAPTER 3  TABLE OF CONTENTS 
CHAPTER 3 AFFECTED ENVIRONMENT......................................................................... 3-1  Introduction .......................................................................................................... 3-1  3.0  3.0.1Purpose and Organization of the Chapter .................................................... 3-1  3.0.2Study Area ................................................................................................... 3-2  3.0.3Regulatory Environment .............................................................................. 3-4  3.1  Mineral Resources and Mining ............................................................................ 3-5  3.1.1Coal Resources and Coal Reserves .............................................................. 3-6  3.1.1.1  Total Resources .................................................................. 3-6  3.1.1.2  Demonstrated Reserve Base ............................................... 3-7  Estimated Recoverable Reserves ....................................... 3-8  3.1.1.3  3.1.1.4  Recoverable Reserves at Active Mines ............................ 3-10  3.1.1.5  National Coal Resources and Reserves ............................ 3-10  3.1.2Types of Coal and Extraction Methods ..................................................... 3-11  3.1.3Mining Methods ......................................................................................... 3-14  Underground Mining Methods ......................................... 3-14  3.1.3.1  3.1.3.2  Underground Mine Access ............................................... 3-16  3.1.3.3  Room and Pillar Mining ................................................... 3-20  3.1.3.4  Conventional Room and Pillar Mining ............................ 3-21  3.1.3.5  Continuous Room and Pillar Mining ............................... 3-21  Retreat Mining.................................................................. 3-22  3.1.3.6  3.1.3.7  Longwall Mining .............................................................. 3-22  Surface Effects of Underground Mining .......................... 3-24  3.1.3.8  3.1.4Underground Mine Waste Disposal ........................................................... 3-26  3.1.5Surface Mining Methods............................................................................ 3-26  3.1.5.1  Contour Mining ................................................................ 3-28  3.1.5.2  Area Mining ..................................................................... 3-29  3.1.5.3  Area Mining Dragline Method ......................................... 3-31  Open Pit Mining ............................................................... 3-33  3.1.5.4  3.1.5.5  Block Area/Dozer-Scraper Method .................................. 3-33  3.1.5.6  Mountaintop Removal Mining ......................................... 3-34  3.1.5.7  Auger and Highwall Mining ............................................ 3-37  Haul Roads ....................................................................... 3-38  3.1.5.8  3.1.6Excess Spoil Generation ............................................................................ 3-38  3.1.7Excess Spoil Disposal Methods ................................................................. 3-39  3.1.7.1  Conventional Lift-Type Valley Fills ................................ 3-40 
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3.1.7.2  Head of Hollow Fills ........................................................ 3-40  3.1.7.3  Durable Rock Fill ............................................................. 3-41  3.1.7.4  Excess Spoil Fills on Pre-existing Benches ..................... 3-42  Trends in Excess Spoil Disposal ...................................... 3-42  3.1.7.5  3.1.7.6  Stability of Excess Spoil Fills .......................................... 3-43  3.1.7.7  Mine Reclamation ............................................................ 3-46  3.1.7.8  Processing Facilities ......................................................... 3-47  3.1.7.9  Coal Refuse Disposal Facilities........................................ 3-48  3.1.7.10  Coal Refuse Recovery Operations ................................... 3-49  3.1.8Bonding and Financial Assurance ............................................................. 3-50  3.1.8.1  Alternative Bonding Systems ........................................... 3-53  3.1.9Mineral Resources and Mining by Region ................................................ 3-53  3.1.9.1  Appalachian Basin Mining ............................................... 3-56  Colorado Plateau Mining ................................................. 3-59  3.1.9.2  3.1.9.3  Gulf Region Mining ......................................................... 3-62  3.1.9.4  Illinois Basin Mining ........................................................ 3-65  Northern Rocky Mountains & Great Plains Mining ........ 3-68  3.1.9.5  3.1.9.6  Northwest Mining ............................................................ 3-71  3.1.9.7  Other Western Interior Mining ......................................... 3-73 

TABLE OF TABLES 
Percent of demonstrated coal reserves in U.S. by rank (EIA, 2009) ................. 3-12 

TABLE OF FIGURES 
Figure 3.1-1  Coal Bearing Areas of the US .............................................................................. 3-5  Figure 3.1-2  Coal Fields of the US ........................................................................................... 3-6  Figure 3.1-3  Relationship Between Coal Reserves and Coal Resources, Luppen (2009) ........ 3-7  Figure 3.1-4  Placeholder -- Coal Availability and Recovery, Based on a similar flow chart in Luppen (2009). ........................................................................................................................... 3-10  Figure 3.1-5  U.S. Coal Resources and Reserves .................................................................... 3-10  Figure 3.1-6  Coal Production by Type of Coal by Region ..................................................... 3-13  Figure 3.1-7  Placeholder – Map showing coal resources and sulfur content ........................ 3-13  Figure 3.1-8  Underground Mining By Type – 2007 ............................................................... 3-15 
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Figure 3.1-9  Underground Mine Type Cross Section............................................................. 3-15  Figure 3.1-10  Figure 3.1-11  Figure 3.1-12  Figure 3.1-13  Figure 3.1-14  Figure 3.1-15  Figure 3.1-16  Figure 3.1-17  Figure 3.1-18  Figure 3.1-19  Figure 3.1-20  Figure 3.1-21  Figure 3.1-22  Figure 3.1-23  Figure 3.1-24  Figure 3.1-25  Figure 3.1-26  Figure 3.1-27  Figure 3.1-28  Region Figure 3.1-29  Figure 3.1-30  Figure 3.1-31  Figure 3.1-32  Figure 3.1-33  Figure 3.1-34  Drift Mine Cross Section ....................................................................... 3-17  Box Cut Cross Section ........................................................................... 3-18  Slope Mine Cross Section ...................................................................... 3-19  Shaft Mine Cross Section ....................................................................... 3-19  Continuous Miner .................................................................................. 3-22  Longwall Miner ...................................................................................... 3-23  Subsidence Mechanisms......................................................................... 3-25  Contour Mine Cross Section .................................................................. 3-29  Area Mine Cross Section ....................................................................... 3-30  Photograph of Draglines ....................................................................... 3-32  Open Pit Mine ........................................................................................ 3-33  Block Area/Dozer-Scraper Operation ................................................... 3-34  Mountaintop Removal Mine Cross Section............................................ 3-35  Photograph of Mountaintop Mining and Reclamation Operations ....... 3-36  Auger/Highwall Cross Section ............................................................... 3-37  Typical Hollow Fill Design .................................................................... 3-40  Coal Preparation Facilities ................................................................... 3-48  Pie Chart Showing Percent Production by Region................................ 3-53  Bar Graph Showing Production by Surface and Underground Mining by ................................................................................................................ 3-55  Coal Production by Region.................................................................... 3-55  Map of Appalachian Basin..................................................................... 3-56  Production Trends in the Appalachian Basin ........................................ 3-58  Map of Coal Bearing Regions in the Colorado Plateau ........................ 3-60  Production Trends in the Colorado Plateau.......................................... 3-61  Map of Coal Bearing Regions in the Gulf Coast ................................... 3-62 
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Figure 3.1-35  Figure 3.1-36  Figure 3.1-37  Figure 3.1-38  Plains Figure 3.1-39  Region Figure 3.1-40  Figure 3.1-41 

Production Trends in the Gulf Region ................................................... 3-64  Coal Bearing Regions in the Illinois Basin............................................ 3-66  Production Trends in the Illinois Basin ................................................. 3-68  Map of Coal Bearing Regions in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great ................................................................................................................ 3-68  Production Trends in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains ................................................................................................................ 3-71  Production Trends in the Northwest Region .......................................... 3-73  Production Trends in the Other Western Interior.................................. 3-74 

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Chapter 3 Affected Environment
3.0 INTRODUCTION

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This Chapter of the EIS describes the general conditions and characteristics of areas that could be impacted by the Alternatives under consideration. These areas are collectively called the Affected Environment. Section 1502.15 of the Council on Environmental Quality regulations implementing NEPA state the purpose and use of the Affected Environment section as: The environmental impact statement shall succinctly describe the environment of the area(s) to be affected or created by the alternatives under consideration. The descriptions shall be no longer than is necessary to understand the effects of the alternatives. Data and analyses in a statement shall be commensurate with the importance of the impact, with less important material summarized, consolidated, or simply referenced.

3.0.1 Purpose and Organization of the Chapter
The resource descriptions within this Chapter include consideration of the issues and topics raised during the public scoping process. The Affected Environment sections within this EIS address the following resources:            Section 3.1 – Mining and Mineral Resources Section 3.2 -- Geology and Seismicity Section 3.3 – Soils Section 3.4 – Geomorphology and Fluvial Processes Section 3.5 – Topography Section 3.6 – Surface Water Hydrology Section 3.7 – Groundwater Hydrology Section 3.8 – Water Resources Planning Section 3.9 – Radioactive and Chemical Contaminant Transport Section 3.10 – Air Quality, Meteorology and Noise Section 3.11 – Land Use

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Section 3.12 – Terrestrial and Aquatic Biology Section 3.13 – Special Status Species Section 3.14 – Wetlands Section 3.15 – Recreation Section 3.16 – Visual Resources Section 3.17 – Utilities and Infrastructure Section 3.18 – Archaeology, Paleontology and Cultural Resources Section 3.19 – Socioeconomics and Environmental Justice Section 3.20 – Occupational and Public Health and Safety

3.0.2 Study Area
Coal is the most abundant of the fossil fuels and is widely distributed across the world. Approximately 27 percent of the global coal reserves are located in the United States (http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/coal/reserves/reserves.html, accessed 10/4/10). Coal resources are found in many parts of the United States (see Section 3.1 for a detailed description of United States coal resources). Therefore, the Proposed Action and Alternatives could have potential effects across the country. For purposes of this EIS analysis, regional variations of the Affected Environment are summarized to the extent possible. As further described in Section 3.1, OSM has identified seven regions representing the coal-mining areas in the U.S. The physical, biological, and social/cultural variations within these regions are vast. Additionally, coal mining techniques differ by region. The seven coal mining regions include (presented in alphabetical order):  Appalachian Basin -- Appalachian Basin bituminous coal has been mined throughout the last three centuries within Pennsylvania, Ohio, Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, Kentucky, and Tennessee. The Basin has historically been subdivided into three coal regions -- the northern region, the central region, and the southern region -- based on geologic structure and stratigraphy. Historically, the northern and central regions have played the dominant role in coal production. Colorado Plateau -- The Colorado Plateau region contains a substantial quantity of highquality, low-sulfur coal resources. The vast majority of this coal is mined by surface mining methods. The coal in this region lies within Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. Gulf Coast -- The Gulf Coast region generally yields about one twentieth of coal produced in the U.S. Most of this coal is extracted in Texas. Coal is mined within this region exclusively by surface mining methods. For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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Illinois Basin -- Coal production in the Illinois Basin began in the early 1800s. Most of the historical mining production has occurred within Illinois, with other major production coming from Indiana and Kentucky. Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains – Of the seven coal bearing areas, this region contains the most coal resources, a substantial tonnage of which is extracted and will continue to be extracted by surface mining methods. Based on current knowledge, most of this coal is located in a coal field referred to as the Powder River Basin. This coal field straddles northeastern Wyoming and eastern Montana. Northwest – While coal resources exist in the northwest continental U.S., this region consists only of Alaska for this EIS. Coal in Alaska is abundant, but has not been produced in large quantities because of constraints involving coal depth, transportation options, and coal quality. Other Western Interior – This region includes coal resources within the states of Oklahoma, Missouri, and Kansas. Coal is extracted by both surface and underground mining methods.

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In some cases, existing conditions and characteristics are described and analysis is conducted at the state level. The 25 states within the seven coal mining regions that are included in the study area for this EIS are:                       Alabama (Appalachian Basin and Gulf Coast) Alaska (Northwest) Arizona (Colorado Plateau) Arkansas (Gulf Coast) Colorado (Colorado Plateau and Northern Rocky Mountains/Great Plains) Illinois (Illinois Basin) Indiana (Illinois Basin) Kansas (Other Western Interior) Kentucky (Appalachian Basin and Illinois Basin) Louisiana (Gulf Coast) Maryland (Appalachian Basin) Mississippi (Gulf Coast) Missouri (Other Western Interior) Montana (Northern Rocky Mountains/Great Plains) New Mexico (Colorado Plateau) North Dakota (Northern Rocky Mountains/Great Plains) Ohio (Appalachian Basin) Oklahoma (Other Western Interior) Pennsylvania (Appalachian Basin) Tennessee (Appalachian Basin) Texas (Gulf Coast) Utah (Colorado Plateau) For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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Virginia (Appalachian Basin) West Virginia (Appalachian Basin) Wyoming (Northern Rocky Mountains/Great Plains)

Analysis may also be conducted at the county level in some cases. The study area includes 193 counties within those 25 states listed above. The 193 counties include all of the 191 counties in which coal mining was conducted in 2008 (the latest data available from the Energy Information Administration – DOE/EIA, 2008), plus two counties in Montana that are expected to have coal mining production in the near future.

3.0.3 Regulatory Environment
While this Chapter focuses on the affected environmental and socioeconomic conditions and characteristics, it is also important to consider the existing regulatory environment in the context of potential changes to existing rules to implement SMCRA. A comprehensive assessment of the relevant regulatory environment was provided in Section III(H) within the 2008 OSM Final EIS on Excess Spoil Minimization/Stream Buffer Zones (OSM, 2008). This information is incorporated by reference into this EIS. The existing regulatory environment description as described in OSM (2008) has been modified by the following:  On December 12, 2008 (73 FR 75814-75885), OSM published a final rule modifying the circumstances under which mining activities may be conducted in or near perennial or intermittent streams. That rule is often referred to as the 2008 Stream Buffer Zone Rule, and it took effect on January 12, 2009. On June 11, 2009, the Secretary of the DOI, the Administrator of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and the Acting Assistant Secretary of the Army (Civil Works) entered into a memorandum of understanding (MOU) to consider revisions to key provisions of rules implementing SMCRA, including the 2008 rule and approximate original contour requirements. Consequently on November 30, 2009, OSM published an advance notice of proposed rulemaking (ANPR) soliciting comments on ten potential rulemaking alternatives (see 74 FR 62664-62668). In addition, consistent with the MOU, OSM invited the public to identify other rules that should be revised.

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The existing regulatory environment, including the changes noted above, have been incorporated into the No Action Alternative as described in Chapter 2 of this EIS. Table ___ previously summarized the SMCRA regulatory citations linking the existing regulations to the proposed regulatory changes (Table to be prepared by OSM, and to be located in Chapter 1 or Chapter 2).

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3.1

MINERAL RESOURCES AND MINING

Because this Federal Action is national in scope, the affected environment includes any area where coal occurs and has the potential to be mined. These areas are depicted on the maps below and are located in the seven regions that will be analyzed throughout this EIS: the Appalachian Basin, the Colorado Plateau, the Gulf Coast, the Illinois Basin, the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains, the Northwest, and Other Western Interior. Figure 3.1-1 Coal Bearing Areas of the US

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Figure 3.1-2

Coal Fields of the US

In 2008, coal was mined in 25 states, with production totaling 1,171.8 million short tons, the highest amount of coal ever produced in a single year and an increase of 2.2 percent above 2007 levels. The top ten coal producing states in 2008 by tonnage were: Wyoming (467,644 thousand short tons), West Virginia (157,778 thousand short tons), Kentucky 120,323 thousand short tons), Pennsylvania (65,414 thousand short tons), Montana (44,786 thousand short tons), Texas (39,017 thousand short tons), Indiana (35,893 thousand short tons), Illinois (32,918 thousand short tons), Colorado (32,028 thousand short tons), and North Dakota (29,627 thousand short tons). (EIA, March 2010).

3.1.1 Coal Resources and Coal Reserves
3.1.1.1 Total Resources The estimated mineral resources and reserves located in a specific area are instructive in gauging whether mining these resources will be technologically feasible and economical. There are several different methods for measuring resources. “Total resources” indicate the estimated total tonnage of coal, both discovered and undiscovered, in a specific area. These estimates are based upon geologic modeling and measure existing and estimated resources regardless of whether the For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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resource can be extracted. Total resources in the United States are estimated to be about 4 trillion short tons.1 Figure 3.1-3 Relationship Between Coal Reserves and Coal Resources, Luppen (2009)

3.1.1.2 Demonstrated Reserve Base However, not all coal is feasible to mine. Thus, the Demonstrated Reserve Base (DRB) is an estimate of the total amount of in-place coal that is more likely to be mined commercially at any given time, based on coal bed thickness and depth. The DRB is administered by the EIA and is based on an assessment by the U.S. Bureau of Mines, first published in 1974, that is now periodically updated by the EIA. The DRB is updated based upon current regional mining recovery percentages and estimates of current accessibility. The EIA estimates the DRB to measure 489 billion short tons, less than one-eighth of the estimated coal resources in the United States. (EIA, Coal Explained, 2010)
This figure is based upon the most comprehensive assessment of U.S. coal resources, which was published by the USGS in 1975. More recent regional assessments have been conducted by the USGS, however, no new national level assessment of US coal resources has been conducted since that time.
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3.1.1.3 Estimated Recoverable Reserves Of these, even less resources are estimated to be recoverable. The “estimated recoverable reserves” describe only the coal that can be mined with today’s mining technology, after accessibility constraints and recovery factors, including economics, are considered. Estimated recoverable reserves are typically significantly less than total coal resources and the DRB. The EIA estimates the recoverable reserves to be 263 billion short tons, about 54% of the DRB. Various factors affect the recoverability of coal resources. These factors vary widely across the varying coal producing regions and include geologic factors, mining conditions, economics, processing, and restrictions on mining. These factors are described below2: Coal Bed Thickness: Coal bed thickness is one of the most important factors affecting coal recoverability and typically there is a direct correlation between the recovery and bed thickness. While most U.S. coal basins have thin to moderate bed thickness (10 feet thick or less), some western coal beds are more than 50 feet thick. Very thin coal beds may not be recoverable, and with current mining technology, minimum bed thickness for surface mining and underground mining are limited to 1 foot and 2 feet, respectively. For underground mining, current technological demands a maximum practical bed thickness of about 15 feet, meaning portions of coal beds exceeding this thickness must be left in place, thus reducing recovery rates. Coal Bed Depth: Coal bed depth, or the depth of material overlying the coal bed, is also an important factor affecting coal recovery economics. For surface mining operations, generally the closer the coal bed is to the surface, the cheaper it is to mine since there will be less material lying over the coal bed to remove. Coal bed depth also affects recoverability and the economics of underground mining. Increasing depth creates concerns such as access and haul distances, roof and floor stability, temperature, and groundwater issues, which lead to productivity declines and economic penalties. The current depth limit for underground coal mining is usually considered to be between 3,000 to 4,000 feet. Stripping Ratio: The stripping ratio is the most influential factor in evaluating the economic potential of surface mining. The stripping ratio is the relationship between the coal bed depth and the coal bed thickness and represents the volume of rock both above and within coal beds, expressed in the number of cubic yards that must be mined, to obtain 1 ton of coal. Therefore, a very thick coal bed with a shallow depth would be more economical to mine than a very shallow coal bed with a greater depth. Coal Rank: Coal rank is a function of the degree of metamorphism and is largely dependent on the amount of heat and pressure sustained by the coal deposit due to burial history and age. As coal increases in rank, it loses water content and its heating value increases, making coal rank inherently related to coal quality.

2

This information is derived from Luppen (2009).

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Coal Quality: The single most important quality parameter is the heating value of coal. The heating value of coal is a measure of the energy contained in a unit of coal, expressed as British thermal units per pound (Btu/lb.). Coal is typically priced on a cost per million Btu basis. Therefore, a lower ranked coal, such as lignite (6,500 Btu/lb.), would require more tonnage to match the energy equivalent of a higher ranked coal, such as bituminous coal (13,000 Btu/lb.), which means higher ranked coals have a substantial competitive advantage. Sulfur Content: When coal is burned, some sulfur dioxide (SO2) is released, which contributes to degradation of air quality. Current clean air standards limit SO2 emissions, making coal that can be burned without the use of often costly emission-reducing technology more desirable. Thus, there is a price premium for low-sulfur coal, coals that contain equal to or less than 1.2 lb. of SO2 per million Btu, and generally the higher the sulfur content, the greater the price penalty. Restrictions on Mining: Restrictions on mining, particularly in relation to underground mining, can limit the ability to recover coal in a certain area. For example, the federal government, with certain exceptions, restricts mining on certain federal lands3 and other lands with societal or environmental values. Other land use restrictions exist, particularly associated with population centers and other surface features that may be adversely impacted by subsidence related to underground mining. These restrictions are presented in Figure 3.1-3. Technological Restrictions: In addition, technological restrictions also limit resource recovery, primarily in relation to underground mining. Because underground mining equipment necessitates a minimum height interval (27 inches for room and pillar and 42 inches for longwall mining) and since most state regulations prohibit coal recovery of other coal beds less than approximately 40 feet apart from previously mined beds, once a coal bed is mined, other coal beds within 40 feet above and below it are effectively sterilized. Furthermore, even when coal is recovered, a certain amount of coal is lost due to mining and processing. Surface mining operations typically recover about 90% of the coal mined, however, underground mining typically has higher mining and processing losses (17 to 25 percent) due to less flexibility in material handling and the necessity to leave a certain amount of in-situ coal in place to maintain roof stability, particular in room-and-pillar mining. Finally, processing can reduce resource recovery, since some coal must be processed to improve quality. Generally, at least minor parts of the strata immediately adjacent to the coal are recovered along with the coal, called dilution. Thin beds of ash, called partings, are also typically found within most coal beds. Inclusion of dilution and partings material is low in Btus and thus decreases the quality of the mined coal. This is more of a problem in the East and Midwest, since these coal beds tend to be thinner than those in the Western United States. If the noncoal material is significant, some form of beneficiation process may be necessary to make the coal marketable. Extensive raw coal washing to eliminate dilution or to lower the sulfur content, common in the East, results in processing losses.
3 These include the National Park System, National Wildlife Refuge System, National System of Trails, National Wilderness Preservation System, National Wild and Scenic Rivers System, National Recreation Areas, lands acquired with money derived from the Land and Water Conservation Fund, National Forests, and Federal lands in incorporated cities, towns, and villages. 40 CFR 3461.5(a).

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Figure 3.1-4

Placeholder -- Coal Availability and Recovery, Based on a similar flow chart in Luppen (2009).

3.1.1.4 Recoverable Reserves at Active Mines The EIA, as part of its annual Coal Production and Preparation Survey, obtains the amount of recoverable reserves at active mines from all U.S. coal mines that produced at least 10,000 short tons of coal in the reporting year. At actively producing mines, the recoverable reserves as of January 1, 2009, measured 17.9 billion short tons. (EIA, Coal Explained, 2010) 3.1.1.5 National Coal Resources and Reserves As stated above, the nation as a whole contains an estimated 4 trillion short tons in total coal resources.4 Of these, the EIA estimates the DBR to measure 489 billion short tons, of which estimated recoverable reserves total 263 billion short tons, about 54% of the DRB. Figure 3.1-5 U.S. Coal Resources and Reserves

4 This figure is based upon the most comprehensive assessment of U.S. coal resources, which was published by the U.S. Geological Survey in 1975. More recent regional assessments have been conducted by the USGS, however, no new national level assessment of U.S. coal resources has been conducted since this time.

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3.1.2 Types of Coal and Extraction Methods
Coal resources are divided into four different ranks based on the heating value of samples. The coal ranks include lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, and anthracite (Table 3.1-1). Lignite has the lowest heating value, followed by subbituminous coal, bituminous coal, and anthracite, which has the highest heating value. Coal with a higher heating value is usually higher priced since it produces more energy per ton than coal with a lower heating value. In 2009, these four ranks of coal had the following average open market prices: lignite ($21.53 per ton); subbituminous ($13.71 per ton); bituminous ($54.25 per ton); and anthracite ($60.35 per ton). (EIA, Coal Explained 2010).

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Table 3.1-1

Percent of demonstrated coal reserves in U.S. by rank (EIA, 2009)

Percent of U.S. Demonstrated Coal  Reserves Bituminous 53.1% Subbituminous 36.6% Lignite 8.8% Anthracite 1.5%
Of the four ranks, bituminous accounts for more than half of the DRB. Bituminous coal is concentrated primarily east of the Mississippi River, with the greatest amounts occurring in Illinois, Kentucky, and West Virginia. Wyoming and Montana contain the majority of the subbituminous demonstrated coal reserves, with this entire reserve base located west of the Mississippi River. Lignite, the lowest ranking coal, accounts for 9% of the reserve base and is found mostly in Montana, Texas, and North Dakota. Anthracite, although the highest ranking coal, makes up only 1.5% of the reserve base and is concentrated almost entirely in northeastern Pennsylvania. (EIA, Coal Explained 2010).

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Figure 3.1-6

Coal Production by Type of Coal by Region
Lignite Subbituminous Bituminous Anthracite

600,000 

500,000 

2008 Production (Thousands  Short Tons)

400,000 

300,000 

200,000 

100,000 

‐ Northern Rocky  Mountains Appalachian Basin Illinois Basin Colorado Plateau Gulf Coast Other Western  Interior Northwest

In addition, coal reserves are also classified by sulfur content. Of the DRB, the quantities of low-sulfur, medium-sulfur, and high-sulfur coal are relatively equivalent, according to the EIA. Low-sulfur coal is estimated to account for about 170 billion short tons, or about 33% of the DRB. Meanwhile, medium-sulfur coal accounts for about 28 percent of the DRB and high-sulfur coal for 39 percent of the DRB. Most low-sulfur (84 percent) and medium-sulfur (61 percent) coal is located in the western United States, while most high-sulfur coal (71 percent) is located in the Interior region. The Appalachian Basin contains a mixture of low-, medium-, and high sulfur coal reserves. Figure 3.1-7 Placeholder – Map showing coal resources and sulfur content

The sulfur content of coal has become an important factor in compliance with Clean Air Act requirements for sulfur dioxide (SO2). While electric power plants that burn coal with higher levels of sulfur dioxide may be required to install costly emission control technology that removes a majority of sulfur from the emissions from the plant, other coal contains a low enough sulfur content that it will meet emissions standards for sulfur when burned. Because sulfur content affects the use of costly pollution control technology by electric power plants, low-sulfur coal is priced higher than coal with a higher sulfur content. Thus, heat value and sulfur content contribute to the price of coal. For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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In estimating recoverable resources, the EIA notes that the recoverable reserves may not precisely match the DRB due to regional differences in resource accessibility, geology and recovery rates. Of the estimated recoverable reserves nationwide,5 it is estimated that low-sulfur coal accounts for 36 percent, medium-sulfur coal accounts for 31 percent, and the remaining 33 percent is high-sulfur coal. In addition, higher recovery rates are projected for low-sulfur surface mineable reserves in the western United States than for underground resources in the Interior and Appalachia. Of the estimated demonstrated reserves, approximately 68% of U.S. coal is mineable by underground methods, while the remaining 32% are mineable by surface methods. However, when analyzing recoverable reserves, due to lower recovery ratios inherent in underground mining, the percentage of estimated reserves recoverable by underground mining methods decreases to 57%, while the estimated recoverable reserves mineable by surface methods increases to 43%.

3.1.3 Mining Methods
In the United States, coal is mined by various types of underground or surface mining methods depending on geologic characteristics of the region, economics, property ownership, and other factors. These methods are described below. 3.1.3.1 Underground Mining Methods In underground mining, also known as deep mining, coal is extracted by excavating within the horizon of a coal seam and without removing the overlying overburden for reasons other than primary seam access. This approach is practical for seams generally greater than 100 feet in depth, as underground mining of shallower seams can encounter difficulties with roof integrity and subsidence (Suboleski, 1999a). For a general description of subsidence, the reader is referred to section 3.1.3.8 of this EIS. Underground mines can be categorized by the manner in which access to a coal seam is made, and by the manner in which a coal seam is extracted. Access methods can include drift, slope, shaft and box-cut mines, and extraction methods can include room and pillar (conventional and continuous) and longwall mining. The method of coal extraction is not dependent on the method of access, and multiple methods of access and extraction may be present in an individual mine. Underground mines are a significant part of the overall coal industry and at times presents an alternative to surface mining methods when physical site conditions or surface property ownership issues preclude employment of surface mining methods. Figure 3.1-8 shows the distribution of underground mining methods by region.

5 The most recent available study related to sulfur content was conducted using figures from 1999, where the recoverable reserves were estimated to total 275 million short tons by the EIA.

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Figure 3.1-8

Underground Mining By Type – 2007

Figure 3.1-9 is a cross section depicting the different types of extraction methods. Figure 3.1-9 Underground Mine Type Cross Section

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3.1.3.2 Underground Mine Access The method of accessing a coal seam for underground mining depends largely on its vertical position relative to the ground surface. An individual mine may have more than one access type, depending on safety, coal haulage, ventilation, and supply requirements. A drift mine enters a coal seam horizontally, requiring that the access be where the coal outcrops on the side of a slope or mountain. This is generally the simplest and most economical mine access method due to the fact that there is no significant excavation into the overburden.

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Figure 3.1-10

Drift Mine Cross Section

A box cut mine for underground mining consists of rectangular box excavations which result in high walls on all sides of the cut, generally with a sloping road into the box cut. In some areas where surface mining is conducted, an open pit is left which is characterized as a box cut. In other areas of mountainous terrain where coal seams are below valley floors, box cuts have been utilized to approximately 200 feet +/- to access the coal seam. Material excavated from the box cut is then placed in an excess spoil area near the mine site.

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Figure 3.1-11

Box Cut Cross Section

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A slope mine utilizes an inclined entry or tunnel to access the coal seam and is employed where the coal outcrop cannot be directly accessed, but is still within a reasonable vertical distance from the ground surface. Slope entries are usually driven at angles of less than 16° from the horizontal, in order to facilitate conveyor haulage, and must tunnel through the rock above the coal, or overburden, to achieve this access (Suboleski, 1999b). Figure 3.1-12 Slope Mine Cross Section

A shaft mine consists of a vertical opening driven from the ground surface to the coal seam and is employed where the coal seam is relatively deep or cannot be otherwise accessed due to topography or property limitations. This elevator arrangement, known as a hoist, is used to transport coal and miners to and from the surface through the shaft, with coal carried in hoist cars known as skips, and miners riding in hoist cars known as cages. Vertical conveyors have been developed in recent years that can transport coal out of the mines. Figure 3.1-13 Shaft Mine Cross Section

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3.1.3.3 Room and Pillar Mining There are two types of room and pillar mining that can be employed, conventional room and pillar and continuous room and pillar which are explained in detail below. In choosing the appropriate type of room and pillar mining to be implemented on a site, the operator must consider seam irregularities, seam thickness and seam parting (a layer of rock separating the coal seam) characteristics. Room and pillar mining is the most common form of underground mining. The room and pillar method leaves portions of the coal seam in place to support the mine roof while coal is extracted. Room and pillar mines are developed by making a parallel series of entries, usually three to eleven entries in a series, with perpendicular crosscuts that connect the entries to form a grid-like pattern in a panel of coal, which can be more than 400 feet wide and half a mile long. The blocks of coal that remain within the mine after primary coal extraction are referred to as pillars and serve to support the roof of the mine. The coal pillars are generally 20 to 90 feet wide, and the entries average 20 to 30 feet wide. Room and pillar mines are best suited to relatively small reserves, or reserves where variable coal quality requires selective extraction within the seam, and can be applied to seams from 24 inches to 13 feet in thickness. The equipment required for room and pillar mining has a smaller capital investment requirement than that for a longwall mine and can be more easily moved to other mine sites (Suboleski, 1999a). After a panel has been fully developed, the mining direction is usually reversed for retreat or secondary extraction. During retreat or secondary extraction, some of the remaining coal pillars are removed in a systematic manner in order to maximize the amount of the coal seam that is recovered from the panel. Secondary extraction can result in roof collapse and subsidence as the roof support of the pillars is removed. The amount of secondary mining performed at a mine depends on safety, subsidence, geology, and coal market considerations. Room and pillar mines with both primary For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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and secondary extraction can achieve approximately 70 to 80 percent recovery of a coal seam in the areas where secondary mining occurs, while primary extraction alone can achieve only about 40 to 60 percent (McDaniel & Kitts, 1999). 3.1.3.4 Conventional Room and Pillar Mining Conventional room and pillar mining employs a combination of mechanical cutting machines and blasting to extract coal from coal faces exposed within an advancing panel. Once the predominant mining method in the Appalachian coal fields, it accounted for only about 10 percent of total production in the 1990s and less today (Suboleski, 1999b). The conventional process is conducted in five distinct steps: 1) Cutting – the coal face is undercut, side, center, or top cut by a mobile machine that resembles a large chain saw. Cutting of the coal allows another open face into which the rock can be blasted. 2) Drilling – the coal face is drilled in a pre-determined pattern to insert a blasting agent or compressed air. 3) Blasting – the cut coal face is blasted to free the coal for loading and hauling. 4) Loading and Hauling – the loose coal is transported to a belt conveyor or mine-car loading point and hauled out of the mine. 5) Roof Bolting and Advancement of Support Services – roof support is installed, ventilation is extended to the new working face, and supplies are brought in to develop the next set of entries and coal faces. The conventional method is advantageous where the coal seam is irregular in thickness or quality, or if there is a parting (a layer of rock separating the seam) associated with the seam. The conventional method also allows for a certain amount of control over the product size, which is tied to the design of the blasting pattern. 3.1.3.5 Continuous Room and Pillar Mining The more popular technique of the room and pillar mining is the continuous method, which utilizes a continuous mining machine to mechanically break the coal from the face and load it onto haulage equipment or belt conveyors which takes the mined coal to the surface When a cut into a coal face is completed, the continuous miner is removed from the face and roof support, usually roof bolts, is installed and ventilation is advanced. The continuous mining method has fewer operational steps than the conventional method, therefore reducing the number of required working faces in the coal seam. Continuous mining reduces manpower requirements, concentrates activity, and reduces support service problems. However, it is not as flexible for addressing variations in coal quality or the presence of partings within the coal seam.

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Figure 3.1-14

Continuous Miner

3.1.3.6 Retreat Mining After the coal has been completely mined using the room and pillar method, a technique known as retreat mining may be employed to remove the coal pillars. Retreat mining utilizes the same equipment to mine the pillars that were used during the room and pillar sequence of the operation. Generally, machinery works from the back side of the mine moving toward the entrance, extracting the pillars and allowing the roof to collapse in a predictable manner. Supplemental roof support is necessary in retreat mining to increase safety and minimize occurrences of potentially dangerous roof falls. Retreat mining activities, like longwall mining, can potentially cause subsidence of the surface area overlying the underground mine. Subsidence is generally explained in Section 3.1.3.8 of this EIS. 3.1.3.7 Longwall Mining Longwall mining is another method of underground mining characterized by use of mobile mechanical supports for the mine roof and provides essentially complete coal extraction within For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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the working area of the equipment. In the longwall mining method, two or three parallel entries are made into the coal seam like continuous room and pillar methods. A cross heading is then driven between the ends of the entry headings to create a panel. These panels are usually 850 to 1,100 feet in width and 7,500 to 15,000 feet in length (Suboleski, 1999b). A shearer or plow-type cutting head mounted on a track then travels back and forth across the cross heading, cutting the coal off in strips and working backwards towards the origin of the panel. Shearers are the more popular of the two heads, cutting 30 to 42 inches of coal per pass compared to 6 inches per pass for a plow. In both cases, the traveling cutting head is mounted on an armored face conveyor, which stays parallel to the coal face being mined and transports freshly cut coal to the mine’s main haulage system. Figure 3.1-15 Longwall Miner

When the end of the coal face is reached, the cutting direction is reversed and the longwall miner moves in the opposite direction. The conveyor and cutter head are protected by a line of hydraulic roof supports, or shields, that are advanced with each progressive cut and keep the equipment parallel to the coal face. As the shields advance, overhead stresses cause the roof in the mined-out area behind them to collapse, filling the mine void with broken rock known as gob. Cracks resulting from the mine roof collapse do not generally propagate to the surface, but For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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the entire surface area over a panel will subside to some degree as mining progresses. Subsidence is normally about two thirds of the thickness of the seam being mined (Suboleski, 1999a). Longwall mining has several advantages over room and pillar mining, including a higher coal recovery rate of up to 85 percent (McDaniel & Kitts, 1999) and higher production rate when the longwall is operating. Longwall mining is the only practical method for seams of greater than 1,500 feet in depth (Suboleski, 1999b). This method of underground mining does require a relatively high capital investment and is not practical for reserves of less than 50 million tons, with double that figure preferred. A reserve of six feet or greater in thickness and of sufficiently regular shape to accommodate rectangular panels is also required (Suboleski, 1999a). Longwall mines are generally safer due to the overhead protection of the shields, provide better subsidence control over local pillar removal, and have lower support requirements, such as roof bolting, rock dusting (for fire suppression), and ventilation controls. However, longwall mines can suffer production delays when moving equipment between panels, and may not be suited to coal seams with many irregularities or in difficult geologic conditions. The equipment is also specific to the mine and may not be transferable to other sites after mining is completed. Some room and pillar mining is usually associated with longwall mining to extract coal reserves to form the longwall panels and mine some of the irregular areas remaining. Many new longwall mines are operating or being developed in the Illinois Basin. 3.1.3.8 Surface Effects of Underground Mining The extraction of material from underground mines without leaving adequate support for the overlying soil and rock layers (the overburden) results in their collapse above the mine into the void and may result in the subsidence of surface lands over the mined-out area. The downward movement can be accompanied by horizontal movement, strain, tilt, and even by locally upward movements of the land surface. Most surface subsidence in the United States has been attributed to the underground mining of coal (Bureau of Mines, as cited in HUD, 1977; U.S. Comptroller General, 1979).

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Figure 3.1-16

Subsidence Mechanisms

Two types of surface features caused by mine subsidence are sinkholes and troughs. A sinkhole is a circular depression in the ground surface that occurs when the overburden collapses into a mine void. A trough is a depression in the ground surface that is formed by sagging of the overburden into a mined-out area. Sinkholes are commonly related to subsidence of a room a pillar mine; whereas, troughs are commonly related to subsidence of a longwall mine. For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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The surface area affected by subsidence can be larger than the mined-out areas as a result of angle of draw. Angle of draw is an area described by an angle of about 30° from the vertical drawn outwards from the edge of the workings and is a result of differential ground movement. Subsidence can lead to functional impairment of surface lands, features or facilities. The extent, severity, and timing of subsidence depend on a number of factors that vary considerably from region to region. These factors include the method of mining used; type, size, and condition of the support left in place within a mine; method and quantity of backfilling; size and geometry of a mined-out area; thickness and properties of the coal seam; depth to the coal seam; thickness and structural composition of both the underlying rocks and the overburden (including the presence of geologic faults); inclination of strata and surface; soil composition; locations of ground water; and whether areas were previously mined. All of these factors influence the response of the surface to stresses over time (HUD, 1977; Hower et al., 1980; DOE, 1981).

3.1.4 Underground Mine Waste Disposal
Underground mine development waste consisting of rock from excavation, roof falls or other sources can be usually be disposed of within the underground mine workings. If disposal within the underground works is impractical or unfeasible, this waste can be disposed of in fills or hauled to a refuse site.

3.1.5 Surface Mining Methods
Surface mining involves removal of overburden to expose underlying coal seams for extraction, although surface mines may also employ surface-directed underground equipment, called augers or highwall miners, for secondary extraction of coal without overburden removal. Surface mining is categorized by three basic operational methods: contour mining, area mining, and mountaintop removal mining. Secondary extraction associated with surface mining, collectively known as highwall mining, occurs after the final highwall limits have been reached. Underground mining entries may sometimes be employed when the limits of surface mining are reached. Surface mines can employ any combination or all of these methods to maximize the coal recovery from a given land parcel. Prior to discussing the individual mining methods, several common features of surface mines are reviewed for background. Although approaches to surface coal mining can vary greatly between individual mine sites, all share a series of common site development activities: 1) Site Access – The first step in mine development is construction of a primary haul road to the mine site to provide public road access for equipment, employees, and supplies. Other internal haul roads allow movement of equipment and the haulage of coal and overburden, and these are developed as access is needed to working areas within a mine site. 2) Erosion and Sedimentation Controls – Control structures include sedimentation ponds constructed to prevent siltation of receiving streams, and ditches constructed to convey For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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runoff from disturbed areas to the sedimentation ponds. Diversion ditches are also built around areas affected by mining to divert runoff from upslope areas to natural drainageways. These facilities must be constructed prior to initiation of earth disturbance in a given area. Ditches may be temporary or permanent, and sedimentation ponds may also be left in place after mining if required for long-term runoff control or to serve as an ecological component of the reclamation plan. In some cases, permanent stream relocations are also employed to reroute streams around working areas in reconstructed channels. 3) Clearing and Grubbing – This activity involves the removal of trees, stumps, shrubs, and other vegetation from the area to be affected. This allows for more efficient removal of topsoil, if topsoil salvaging is employed on a mine site for later use in reclamation. If topsoil is segregated, a dozer will typically remove the recoverable soil from mining areas for placement in stockpiles, which may be temporarily seeded with fast-growing grass species until needed for reclamation. On many sites within the study area, the existing topsoil is very thin and cannot be efficiently stripped or segregated for later use. Marketable timber is usually harvested prior to clearing and grubbing, and residual vegetative material may be wind-rowed and burned, disposed of in mine pits prior to backfilling, or reserved for reclamation uses. Valley/hollow fill areas are cleared and grubbed prior to fill placement to prepare the foundation to ensure stability of the fill. 4) Excavation – This activity is the physical removal of overburden soils and rock overlying the coal seams to allow equipment access for removal and haulage. Unconsolidated surface material and weathered bedrock can usually be excavated by equipment without blasting. To access seams in deeper, unweathered bedrock blasting is implemented as a part of the excavation process. In the blasting process, bedrock areas are first benched to create a level working surface, and a rotary drill then drills a pattern of holes, also known as “shot holes,” to the next planned bench or coal seam to be exposed. A blasting agent (typically Ammonium Nitrate and Fuel Oil or “ANFO”) is placed in the blast holes and connected by an electric or non-electric energy distribution system. Timing of individual detonations within the blast pattern allows for control over the fragmentation and intensity of vibrations. The void left after excavation is referred to as a mine pit. The broken rock that is removed is known as spoil. Prior to implementing the above-described steps, the economics of the mining site must be determined. The primary method of assessing mining economics for a coal seam is its stripping ratio, which is typically expressed as bank cubic yards (in-place volume) of overburden moved per clean ton of coal produced. The stripping ratio assists in determining the extent to which a coal seam is economically feasible for mining and which mining method or methods are best applied to those site conditions. Where the stripping ratio is higher, the cost of coal production increases. Overburden type, excavation costs, coal market value, topography, and haulage distances are taken into account when assessing the stripping ratio. Stripping ratios of 15:1 to 20:1 have generally been considered the upper limit for mine feasibility by any method (Suboleski, 1999a). Changes in production costs and coal market conditions may result in differing economic For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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stripping ratios over the life of a mine, and mine plans must retain the flexibility to respond to these variations by increasing or decreasing the extent of mining within the scope of the original mine plan. When an overlying coal seam is present, its coal production volume is added to that of the underlying seam and reduces its stripping ratio. Thus, removal of multiple coal seams may allow economical mining of areas of an underlying coal seam that otherwise could not be mined to that extent. Determination of stripping ratios and mine practicality for a given mine site is now largely accomplished by three dimensional modeling using mine planning software. Surface mines are required through the process of backfilling and regrading to restore the mine site to its approximate original contour (“AOC”), defined by SMCRA as follows: “AOC means that surface configuration achieved by backfilling and grading of the mined area so that the reclaimed area, including any terracing or access roads, closely resembles the general surface configuration of the land prior to mining and blends into and complements the drainage pattern of the surrounding terrain, with all highwalls and spoil piles eliminated.” Section 701(2) Because the AOC concept has not been quantified, interpretation of what constitutes AOC has been open to debate. Generally, maximization of spoil placement in the backfill areas on the mine benches and a grading configuration similar to surrounding topography is accepted as AOC. When these conditions are not met, an AOC variance is necessary. 3.1.5.1 Contour Mining Contour mining takes place in mountainous or rolling hill areas where it is uneconomical or unfeasible due to property ownership conflicts to remove all of the overburden from a particular coal seam, and mining is limited to the side of a mountain or to the end of a ridge line. When occurring on the end of a ridge line, this method may also be referred to as “point removal”. In contour mining, operations progress along the outcrop of a coal seam, removing overburden inward towards the mountaintop or ridge core to the highwall limit of that coal seam as determined by its stripping ratio. This results in mine cuts that wrap around mountaintops or ridge lines parallel to contour in a sinuous pattern dictated by topography. Contour cuts may be conducted on multiple seams on a given mountain or ridge line, stepping upward in elevation in a layer-cake pattern and extending to greater depths because of the stripping ratio benefits of overlying seam mining. The contour method is highly dependent on mobile equipment and does not employ draglines. The lateral movement, or haulback, technique is the most common contour mining style. To begin a contour mine, an initial box cut is opened at the coal outcrop and excavated to the highwall limit, forming a mine pit. Spoil material from this first cut may be temporarily stockpiled on site for use in later backfilling, but is usually hauled to an excess spoil disposal area. On steep-sloped sites, some spoil from almost all succeeding cuts must be disposed of in fills as well. After the coal is removed from the first pit, a second cut continues along the contour following the coal outcrop, and spoil from the second cut is placed in the first pit area. The preferred methods of spoil movement are shovel, hydraulic excavator, or loader and truck combinations. Pan scrapers may also be used in a cycling pattern, but this approach is now largely obsolete. The selective placement of spoil by trucks allows for secondary extraction For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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activities, such as highwall mining, to take place on the usually narrow contour mine bench. Successive cuts continue along the contour, with new spoil being placed in the previous pits. Where multiple seams are being mined, the spoil may also be placed in the downhill pits of lower seams. Final reclamation grading of the highwalls follows the approximate original slope of the hillside that was mined. Figure 3.1-17 Contour Mine Cross Section

Contour mining may be employed for the entirety of a mine operation or found in association with the other surface mining methods to develop areas for larger equipment, recover low elevation coal seams on steep slopes, and seams from areas of valley fills prior to fill placement. Contour mines offer the advantages of mine plan flexibility, generally lower capital costs, at least partial recovery of coal reserves from steep sites, and the ability to adjust stripping ratio limits in response to market changes. The economic stripping ratio limit for contour mining is generally 10 to 12, but can range higher for better quality coal (Suboleski, 1999a). This method is not suitable for large coal reserves and does require a disposal area for spoil on steep-sloped sites. If used for the entirety of a mine operation, contour mining may also leave deeper coal reserves isolated from future recovery within the cores of mountaintops and ridge lines. Second cut or more operations can take place on prelaw mine areas where preexisting contour cuts are used for spoil storage. 3.1.5.2 Area Mining Compared to contour mining, area mining takes place over a range of slope conditions and is not restricted to the side of a mountain or ridge line. Area mining occurs when relatively low slopes and/or multiple coal seams produce stripping ratios favorable for mining across topography, For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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rather than around it. Although area mining may affect an entire mountaintop or ridge line, it is considered a separate entity from mountaintop removal since an area mine must be reclaimed to AOC standards. All coal seams may not be mined across their entire extent. The area mining method will generally have larger working areas than the contour method and may employ large earthmoving machines for primary coal production. Figure 3.1-18 Area Mine Cross Section

Most area mine operations contain components of contour mining to recover low elevation seams on steep slopes and those that would otherwise be buried in valley fills. Area mining offers the advantages of a high recovery rate from the reserve, high production rate potential, and the potential to restore a site to approximate original contour. However, area mining requires a large capital investment and large reserve base to be practical (1,000,000 tons minimum), and can entail disposal of large volumes of excess spoil. Area mines may use a cross-ridge approach, where mining progresses parallel to the long axis of a ridge; or a side-ridge approach, where mining progresses perpendicular to the long axis of a ridge. In both cases, cuts are oriented perpendicular to the direction of advance. The cross-ridge technique provides consistent operational costs and coal production by simultaneously mining the high stripping ratio coal at the ridge crest and the low stripping ratio coal at the coal outcrops. Consequently, each perpendicular cut averages out to an economically acceptable stripping ratio. The side-ridge approach allows for easier movement of spoil into valley fills paralleling ridge lines, but generally progresses from low stripping ratios to high and back to low on the opposite side of a ridge, requiring a balance of mining costs over a longer time period. For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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Both approaches and several directions of advance may be present on a given mine site to make best use of the local topography with regards to overburden removal efficiency and equipment travel distances. Area mining may begin by excavation of an initial cut across the entire width of a mountaintop or ridge line containing coal reserves. This initial cut may start as a contour cut on the basal coal seam and progress inward until a linear primary highwall is established perpendicular to the direction of advance. Smaller equipment, such as hydraulic excavators, loaders, and dozers, make these initial cuts and work in advance of the primary highwall to remove upper strata and coal, and to create a flat working bench for blast hole drilling. In steep slope areas, spoil from development activities is often placed in a valley fill or other type of disposal fill. Successive highwalls are opened by taking smaller block cuts from and parallel to the face of the primary highwall. Spoil movement at the primary highwall uses larger equipment, such as draglines, electric shovels, hydraulic excavators, or large loaders, with the latter three loading haul trucks for spoil transport. In some areas, Bucket Wheel excavations may be utilized to remove consistent layers of unconsolidated material. Spoil may also be moved by the cast blasting method, where the force of the blast is used to cast material (30-60 percent) into an adjacent open pit, and dozers then used to push remaining spoil onto the backfill to expose the coal. Where potentially acid-forming overburden is encountered, this material may be segregated for special placement in backfill pods to isolate it from oxygen and water. As with contour mining, spoil from new cuts is used to backfill previous pits. When cast blasting is employed, spoil is moved away from the currently open highwall, rather than against it, leaving a single, long open pit ready to receive spoil from the next cast blast. If a dragline is used with cast blasting, it usually rests on a prepared pad on the spoil within a cut that has been blasted. For a conventional blast, where a highwall is broken in place, the dragline usually rests on the adjacent intact highwall. Shovels, hydraulic excavators, and loaders work within the pit. Movement of spoil by dragline results in long, linear ridges of spoil across the backfilled surface, while truck placement associated with the other types of production equipment may be more selective. If this mining approach were carried completely across a mountaintop or ridge line on the basal coal seam, crop to crop, it would be considered a mountaintop removal mine. However, an area mine will typically encounter high stripping ratios on the upper seams as topography changes or other restrictions that preclude complete removal of the basal seam. 3.1.5.3 Area Mining Dragline Method The dragline method of area mining involves opening an initial box cut, removing the coal exposed in the box cut and then placing the overburden from the next cut into the mined out, box cut area. A dragline machine is used in this process, which is a very large shovel capable of moving up to 100 cubic yards of material with each pass. The box cut procedure is then repeated on a cut-by-cut basis. This operation is generally employed in flat to moderately dipping coal For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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seams with constant overburden depths. This works best in areas where the coal and overburden reach economic limit in a few cuts. Figure 3.1-19 Photograph of Draglines

In a typical cycle of excavation, the dragline bucket is positioned above the material to be excavated. The bucket is then lowered and the dragrope is then drawn so that the bucket is dragged along the surface of the material. The bucket is then lifted by using the hoist rope. A swing operation is then performed to move the bucket to the place where the material is to be dumped. The advantage of the dragline method is the flexibility in varying site conditions that the stripping shovel can handle. The dragline can handle varying overburden depths, characteristics, and multiple seams by changing modes. It may cause some loss of machine productivity but the need for additional equipment is decreased.

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3.1.5.4 Open Pit Mining Open pit or terrace mining is generally used in thick seam areas with low stripping ratios. In these operations, the seams are generally flat lying, gently dipping and rolling. This method often places the overburden in off-site storage. Coal is then removed from the initial pit area. The next cut is taken in the direction of the mine advance and the overburden is hauled around to the existing pit and dumped. The coal is removed and the process of hauling back the overburden is repeated as the pit advances. Modern open pit mining utilizes large mechanical equipment. The amount, type and size of equipment employed in an open pit mine depend on the characteristics of the coal seam, overburden and the required production capacity. Figure 3.1-20 Open Pit Mine

3.1.5.5 Block Area/Dozer-Scraper Method The block area method uses construction-type equipment and was first conceived in the mid 70's as an alternative to the dragline method. Because the dragline equipment was so difficult to procure, the dozer/scraper method began to take hold. This method takes advantage of the scraper's ability to move material over short distances at a low cost and the scraper's ability to elevate material over steep grades for short distances at reasonable costs. This type of mining is used when the overburden is very thin, and is often employed in lignite mining operations in the Gulf region. For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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Figure 3.1-21

Block Area/Dozer-Scraper Operation

3.1.5.6 Mountaintop Removal Mining Mountaintop removal mining (MTR), which is usually a form of area mining, involves removing an entire coal seam or seams from the outcrop on one side of a mountain or hill to the other side. A portion of the overburden from the top of the mountain (typically, at least, the “swell” portion of the broken rock) is transported for permanent placement in a valley fill (excess spoil disposal area). The balance of the broken overburden is mandated by regulation to be placed onto the mountaintop area to achieve the approved postmining land use.

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Figure 3.1-22

Mountaintop Removal Mine Cross Section

The term mountain top mining, sometimes used to describe surface mining in the steep terrain of Appalachia, has created considerable confusion as it is not obvious which method of mining is being referred to by this term. In the Draft Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement on Mountaintop Mining and Valley Fills (MTM/VF EPA, 2004), mountaintop mining is referred to as “coal mining by surface methods (e.g., contour mining, area mining, and mountaintop removal mining) in the steep terrain of the central Appalachian coalfields. The additional volume of broken rock that is often generated as a result of this mining, but cannot be returned to the locations from which it was removed, is known as ‘excess spoil’ and is typically placed in valleys adjacent to the surface mine, resulting in ‘valley fills.’” This terminology considers all steep-terrain surface mining as one method—mountaintop mining. Pursuant to SMCRA, mining operations permitted as mountaintop removal mining are granted a variance from the approximate original contour (AOC) requirement providing that the mine operator commits to one or more of the post-mining land uses prescribed in SMCRA and detailed in the regulations promulgated pursuant to SMCRA. (30 U.S.C. 1265(c) and 30 CFR Parts 785, 816 and 824). SMCRA provisions allow other types of surface coal mining operations in steep slope areas to apply for and receive a waiver from the AOC requirement, again in exchange for creation of specific post-mining land use(s) compliant with the statute and current For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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regulations (30 U.S.C. 1265(d)) Most types of coal operations on the tops of the mountains of Appalachia, however, must be reclaimed to the AOC. In order to alleviate confusion in this DEIS, however, OSM has determined it will use the term “mountaintop removal mining” to refer to those operations that receive a variance from the AOC requirements under the requirements of the law. This DEIS does not use the term “mountaintop mining”, and all other surface mining operations will be discussed in terms of the mining methods actually being employed at the operation. Reclamation creates a level plateau or gently rolling contour that has no highwalls remaining and is capable of supporting post-mining land uses such as industrial, commercial, residential, agricultural, or public facilities (including recreational facilities). Figure 3.1.23 shows an example of a mountaintop removal operation with both active mining and reclamation operations. Figure 3.1-23 Photograph of Mountaintop Mining and Reclamation Operations

Because MTR operations can balance mining costs between high and low stripping ratios, this mining method can achieve essentially 100 percent recovery of coal reserves, a portion of which might otherwise be permanently isolated beneath the reclaimed mine site. Stripping ratios of 13 to 20 may be economically feasible for large operations (Suboleski, 1999a). Some sites have been moved with higher ratios. This type of operation also precludes any future disturbance of the site by re-mining, since no coal remains to be feasibly recovered from the surface. For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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Like area mines, MTR operations require large capital investments and working reserves to be feasible, and can require disposal of substantial amounts of spoil in valley fills. Mine planning can also be more complicated to achieve a net profit from the overall operation. 3.1.5.7 Auger and Highwall Mining Auger and highwall mining are secondary extraction methods that allow additional coal extraction from beneath highwalls after their stripping ratio limit has been reached. This is the last activity to be conducted in a mine pit before it is backfilled. Whenever possible, coal is augered to gain maximum production from a pit where the stripping ratio has been reached. Augering is difficult to use in conjunction with lateral or haulback techniques because as the overburden is removed from one cut, it is placed immediately in the previously mined cut. The timing of the augering operation is therefore extremely critical. In auger mining, horizontal holes are drilled into a coal seam with auger stems driven by a rotary shaft with a hydraulic ram, working on the principle of an Archimedes screw. The auger head diameter is usually two-thirds the coal seam thickness, and augers may come in single, dual, or triple head configurations. While auger holes can reach a distance of 400 feet, 200 feet or less is a more practical limit, as the auger may intersect the bottom strata or wander laterally into adjacent holes as its depth of penetration increases. Augers have a maximum recovery rate of about 33 percent (Suboleski, 1999a). As coal is produced from an auger hole, it is usually loaded directly into haul trucks using a front end loader. A continuous highwall mining machine, or “highwall miner,” may be used in place of an auger when coal seam characteristics permit. A continuous highwall miner typically has a front set of rotary cutting heads that cut coal from a seam beneath a highwall and direct it onto following conveyor cars for delivery to the pit area, where a stacking conveyor piles the coal in preparation for truck loading. A launch vehicle may be used to direct the initial entry of the miner, with a dedicated wheel loader to move the vehicle to the next position. Depth of penetration for a continuous highwall miner is variable depending on geologic conditions, but can reach 400 to 1,000 feet. Continuous highwall miners have a better recovery rate than augers, up to 45 percent of the reserve (Suboleski, 1999a). Recent developments in highwall mining technology are expedited to improve these recovery rates. Figure 3.1-24 Auger/Highwall Cross Section

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Highwall mining can reach coal reserves that are not economical to mine from the surface and is relatively inexpensive compared to other production methods. However, highwall mining has a low recovery rate due to the coal pillar, or web, that must remain intact between each hole. Maintaining this web is critical in preventing the intersection of holes, maintaining highwall stability, and preventing loss of equipment in collapsed holes. In many cases, highwall mining negates any possibility of future surface mining at a site because of mechanical damage to the coal seam and higher stripping ratios resulting from removal of part of the reserve. Normally, highwall mining can only be conducted in a down-dip direction to prevent excessive dewatering of the overlying strata or potentially dangerous dewatering and contamination from intersection of deep mine workings. 3.1.5.8 Haul Roads Haul roads within a mine site are constructed to the widths required for passage of vehicles of the size used on that particular operation, and are usually 50 feet or more wide. The overall grade of a haul road normally does not exceed 10 percent for ease of haulage and to minimize brake wear and failure. Lengths of haul roads vary according to the distances necessary to access development, mining and fill disposal areas. Ditches are constructed on the uphill sides of haul roads to collect runoff, and culverts placed at intervals to convey runoff under the road to the downhill side. Temporary haul roads to working areas are usually surfaced with crushed overburden materials, while primary haul roads connecting to public roads are generally surfaced with gravel. Additional small service roads may be constructed to access erosion and sedimentation control facilities or support areas. [ECSI Cumulative Impact Assessment for the North Fork Kentucky River Watershed 2009]

3.1.6 Excess Spoil Generation
When coal is mined by surface mining methods, rock and soil strata above the coal are first temporarily removed and stored outside of the immediate mining area. If available in sufficient quantity, topsoil is removed and segregated. The underlying rock is fractured by drilling and blasting, or by ripping with bull dozers. The rock is broken as it is removed, and the broken rock For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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is referred to as “spoil”. Because the broken rock incorporates voids and air, spoil is less dense than undisturbed rock. Therefore, the volume of spoil removed during mining becomes greater than the volume of rock that was in place prior to mining, commonly known as the swell factor. After coal removal, the mine operator returns the spoil to the mined-out area for reclamation. The operator grades the spoil so that it closely resembles the pre-mining topography. This is referred to as returning the reclaimed mine to the approximate original contour, or simply AOC. There are situations, particularly in steep terrain, where the volume of spoil is more than sufficient to return the reclaimed land to AOC and it is not technically feasible to return all the spoil to the mined-out area when reclaiming the site. Surplus spoil material disposed of in locations other than the mined-out area, except for material used to blend spoil with surrounding terrain in achieving AOC in non-steep slope areas, is referred to as “excess spoil”. In steep terrain, the mine operator may place the excess spoil either in adjacent valleys, or on previously mined sites, and in any of several types of steep-slope fills: “valley,” “head-ofhollow,” and “durable rock.” These various types of fills are referred to as “excess spoil fills” and are explained in detail below.

3.1.7 Excess Spoil Disposal Methods
The predominant valley fill construction technique in steep-sloped Appalachia is the durable rock fill method. Because of this, the proper design of stable excess spoil fill structures is dependent upon accurate characterization of rock strength and durability [30 CFR 816 / 817.73]. Excess spoil consists of overburden or interburden (soil and rock excavated during the mining operation) not needed to reclaim the disturbed area to the approximate original contour of the land. Before the enactment of the SMCRA, much of the excess spoil was pushed over the slope. Any excess spoil disposal structures were generally constructed with minimal engineering guidance. Often these structures were placed at locations selected merely for the convenience of the mining operation. Since the passage of SMCRA, regulations require increased engineering efforts directed toward design and construction of excess spoil disposal areas to improve safety. Recognized methods of excess spoil placement in valleys include: (a) the ‘conventional’ lift-type construction method; (b) the head-of-hollow fill method; and, (c) the durable rock (gravity segregated) fill method. The term “Hollow Fill” has been used interchangeably with each method. Particulars of each type are described below.

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Figure 3.1-25

Typical Hollow Fill Design

3.1.7.1 Conventional Lift-Type Valley Fills This type of valley fill is constructed in lifts from the toe of the fill upwards. Excess spoil is deposited in uniform and compacted horizontal lifts or layers (four feet or less in thickness). Prior to placement of the spoil, the foundation (i.e. valley floor and sides where the spoil will be placed) are prepared and rock underdrains installed to accommodate ground water seepage and surface-water infiltrations. OSM regulations at 30 CFR 816 /817.71(f)(3), require that the rock underdrain is durable (rock that will not slake in water nor degrade to soil material); non-acid or toxic forming; and free of coal, clay or other non-durable material. 3.1.7.2 Head of Hollow Fills Federal regulations [30 CFR 816 / 817.72(b)(1)] also provide for another method for excess spoil disposal, which involves the placement of spoil in lifts up to the valley head, i.e. at elevations approximating the adjacent ridge lines of the watershed. This "head-of-hollow fill" method originated in West Virginia in the early 1970's, and combines the lift-placement technique described above and a rock chimney drain in the center, or core, of the fill. The "rock core chimney drain" results from mechanical segregation of larger, durable rock during spreading of spoil material and lift compaction. All surface and subsurface drainage is controlled by this rock For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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core to minimize the phreatic surface or water level within the fill mass. This type of fill must crest as close as possible to the ridge line to minimize the surface drainage entering the rock core. The chimney drain is also used in lift fills lower in the watershed, provided the fill volume does not exceed 250,000 cubic yards and upstream drainage is diverted around the fill. 3.1.7.3 Durable Rock Fill The durable rock fill method [30 CFR 816 / 817.73] consists of end-dumping spoil into valleys in a single lift or multiple lifts. The fill construction begins at an elevation where the crown or top of the completed fill will occur. Large rock trucks haul spoil to the center of the hollow and dump the material down slope. This continues to take place, allowing a platform of spoil to lengthen down the hollow, and ends when the toe or bottom of the fill approaches its as-designed final location. Lifts of existing fills are known to range between 30 to over 400 feet in thickness. At the completion of spoil placement, the face of the fill is graded from its dumped angle of repose (the natural slope of spoil material under its own weight) into a less steep, terraced configuration. The durable rock fill method is used if durable rock overburden is present and will comprise at least 80 percent (by volume) of the fill. A designed rock drain is not required for this type of fill, since the gravity segregation during dumping forms a highly permeable zone of large-sized durable rock in the lower one-third of the fill. Wing dumping refers to dumping rock along the contour on the sides of the fill crest to more efficiently place material. Among these different methods of valley-fill construction, end-dumping to build a durable rock fill is, by far, the most common technique applied since 1980. It is less expensive than lift construction; and, with the sampling and testing practices commonly in use, most permits demonstrate excess spoil volumes of at least 80 percent durable rock. The design phase of a durable rock fill must demonstrate that the structures will comprise 80 percent durable rock by volume. The successful long-term performance of the fills is directly related to the strength and durability of the rock in the fill mass and rock drains. Durable rock is defined in Federal regulations at 30 CFR 816 / 817.73(b) as rock which does not slake in water and will not degrade to soil material. The regulatory intent is to selectively obtain rock that can withstand surface mining conditions, and natural forces affecting the fill mass after final placement, without significant degradation. Over the long term, the durable rock fill behaves as a mass of broken rock and not as soil. The mining industry and State agencies rely upon the Slake Durability Index (SDI) as the primary method to evaluate rock durability. This testing protocol has received much critical attention over the years. Several State and Federal inspectors, engineers, and geologists have considered that the SDI may not accurately discriminate durable and non-durable rock. Whether a lack or absence of true durable rock in a durable rock fill would result in instability depends in large part on the amount of subsurface drainage that must be conveyed beneath the For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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structure. To-date, the occurrence of significant mass movements on all types of valley fills is minimal. 3.1.7.4 Excess Spoil Fills on Pre-existing Benches 30 CFR 816 / 817.73 provides for disposal of excess spoil on preexisting mine benches. Requirements in the interest of stability and AOC include: controlled placement and compaction of the spoil on the solid portion of a bench to attain a longterm static safety factor of 1.3; placement and compaction above old fill material to attain a static safety factor of 1.5; elimination of the highwall to the maximum extent technically practical; and construction of diversions and underdrains to control surface and subsurface drainage. This regulation also has specific provisions for gravity transportation of excess spoil to a pre-existing bench directly below the current mine operation. 3.1.7.5 Trends in Excess Spoil Disposal Based on permits issued during the period October 1, 2001, to June 30, 2005, over 1600 new excess spoil fills were approved to be constructed. The fills are almost exclusively limited to the coal mining operations in the Appalachian Basin. Within that region, most of the fills are located in Kentucky (1079), Virginia (125), and West Virginia (372). About a dozen fills were also permitted in the southern and northern Appalachian Basin coal fields: Alabama (6), Ohio (7), and Pennsylvania (1). Recent information shows a trend towards less numerous fills and smaller fills. Permit information indicates that from 2002 to 2005 the number of fills permitted in Kentucky and West Virginia declined (from 262 to 92 and 86 to 56 fills, respectively). The average footprint acreage of proposed excess spoil fills in West Virginia shows an erratic trend over these years. However, the average size of the Kentucky fills continues to show a general decline (from 19 to 7 acres). The reader is referred to Chapter K.2 of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Mountaintop Mining/Valley Fills in Appalachia Draft Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement, EPA 903-R-00013, EPA Region 3, June 2003 (available at http://www.epa.gov/region3/mtntop/eis.htm) to review additional historic information regarding the construction trend of excess spoil fills in the central Appalachian coal fields prior to October 2001. Certain important changes in several state regulatory programs in regards to durable rock fill stability are also noted. In general, the state regulations still reflect the Federal rules in that they recognize the same fill types and similarly require measures to ensure stability through site investigation, material strength testing, foundation preparation, underdrains, surface drains, regrading, and revegetation. Kentucky and West Virginia, however, have augmented their stability-related requirements through rule and policy changes. The reader is referred to Section 3.1.7.6 for additional information regarding these requirements.

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3.1.7.6 Stability of Excess Spoil Fills The objective of most Federal regulatory requirements pertaining to excess spoil fills is to ensure long-term stability. The long-term stability of the fills is of great importance because the structures are not monitored or maintained by the mining industry or government following final bond release. Required steps to achieve stability include: • A site investigation for each proposed excess spoil fill, specifically an investigation of the terrain and materials that will form the foundation of the fill. Important concerns include soil depth, the engineering strength of the soil or rock foundation materials, and the occurrence of seeps or springs. • A stability analysis of the designed fill based on (1) accurate values representing the engineering strengths (i.e. internal friction angle and cohesion) of the placed spoil and foundation material and (2) anticipated pore-water pressures in the fill mass. The analysis must demonstrate a static safety factor (SF) of 1.5 and dynamic SF of 1.1. • Professional engineer’s certifications during the construction of the fills to document that certain critical construction phases are being carried out according to the permit plan. These phases include: foundation preparation; underdrain construction; surface drain construction; grading; and revegetation. The long-term stability of excess spoil fills in steep-sloped Appalachia (parts of Kentucky, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia) was evaluated in preparation of the MTM/VF DPEIS. Among other tasks, the 2002 study included permit and field reviews of 128 excess spoil fills. The sample included all fills known to have experienced incidences of significant instability. For detailed information, please read Chapter III.K.1.c and Appendix H of the MTM/VF DPEIS, which is available at http://www.epa.gov/region3/mtntop/eis.htm. For the purposes of the 2002 study, fill instability was defined as evidence that (1) part of the fill’s mass had separated from the rest of the fill; (2) the separation occurred along a continuous slip surface, or continuous sequence of slip surfaces, intersecting the fill’s surface; and (3) some vertical displacement took place. Cases of instability identified with those criteria were further distinguished between “major” and “minor” occurrences. Major slope movements were those judged to have occurred over a large fraction of the fill face (e.g. over at least a few outslope benches) and/or required a major remediation effort (redistribution of the spoil form one part of the fill to another, construction of rock-toe buttresses, extensive reworking or augmenting of the drainage systems etc.). Because of the potential dangers they presented and the difficulty of their repair, major instabilities were a major focus of the study. Minor slope movements were those that occurred over a small area on the fill (e.g. not more that one bench on the fill face) and only necessitated minor reworking of the fill material (i.e. without significantly changing the original fill configuration). Minor movements were quickly repaired, with no need for further documentation beyond the mine inspection report.

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The observation from the study indicated that major slope movements on valley fills were neither commonplace nor widespread. Only 20 occurrences of major valley fill instability were recorded out of more than 4,000 fills constructed over a 23-year period. None of the occurrences resulted in the loss of life or significant property damage. All occurrences took place on active permits and all but one were repaired prior to bond release. One instability remained unreclaimed following bond forfeiture. The twenty slope movements resulted from improper design or construction practices or inadequately-investigated foundation conditions. More specifically, the study attributed instability to: inadequate subsurface drains; non-durable rock; underground mine drainage; inadequate surface drains; steep foundation slope; thick soil foundation; and/or construction in a landslide prone area. Some of these factors are interrelated. For example, an underdrain system of a durable rock fill is likely inadequate when insufficient amount of durable rock and/or unaccounted for subsurface drainage. An existing thick soil foundation can result from accumulations of colluvial sediment in landslide-prone topography. Most of the factors attributing to instability were not quantitatively analyzed with the exception of foundation slope inclination. Whereas the average foundation slope at the toe of fills was approximately 10 percent, the average of the 20 unstable fills was approximately 16 percent. Six out of nine sampled fills with toe foundation slopes in excess of 20 percent were unstable. Although the study found only a very small percentage of excess spoil fills that experienced significant instability over the 23-year period, the study identified areas of fill design, construction, and documentation that could improve long-term stability. Some of the following recommendations were already implemented by State regulatory authorities: (1) more discriminating methods for determining rock durability; (2) consideration of alternative fill construction techniques to assure optimal foundation and drainage control; (3) better guidance on requirements for foundation investigations and stability analyses; (4) better documentation and record keeping for critical construction phase certifications; (5) prohibition of "wing dumping" excessive distances beyond the fill face; (6) additional assurances for fill foundations on steep slopes; (7) consideration of limits on fill-construction temporary cessation periods before requiring face completion; (8) additional studies of completed fills; and, (9) diligence in assuring a prohibition of impoundment construction on fills. Certain important changes in state regulatory programs in regards to durable rock fill stability are noted, particularly in Kentucky and West Virginia where the vast majority of excess spoil fills exist. Generally, state regulations still reflect the Federal rules in that they recognize the same fill types and similarly require measures to ensure stability through site investigation, material strength testing, foundation preparation, underdrains, surface drains, regrading, and revegetation. Kentucky and West Virginia, however, have augmented their stability-related requirements through rule and policy changes. Kentucky, through the 2002 promulgation of Reclamation Advisory Memorandum (“RAM”) No. 135 and Procedure No. 36, require designated zones near the toe and near the top of the fill where underdrains are constructed instead of dumped. This is to ensure: (1) the placement of For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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adequate underdrains at the top of the fill footprint where the slope of the developing fill face is too short for effective gravity segregation; and (2) prevention of underdrain plugging near the bottom of the structure during fill-face regrading. They further require the mine operator to identify (in the field by flagging) a “stability point” upslope of the designed toe location, above which it is not possible to demonstrate a static safety factor of at least 1.5. If the completed fill is smaller than initially designed, its toe must still at least reach the stability point. Finally, wing dumping is controlled by requiring the operator to flag the design “crest limit” of the structure (defined by the length of the fill’s top bench). The operator is not allowed to end dump material anywhere down valley of the crest limit. For additional information on this RAM, the reader is referred to Kentucky Energy and Environment Cabinet, Department for Natural Resources, Division of Mine Permits RAM No. 135, at http://minepermits.ky.gov/RAMS/RAM135.pdf Another recent regulatory action in Kentucky, known as the Fill Placement Optimization Process (“FPOP”), promulgated in RAM No. 145, provides for an objective and well-defined method for determining post-mining land configuration and maximizing the amount of mine spoil returned to the mined out area, thereby minimizing the amount of spoil placed in excess spoil disposal sites such as valley fills. The FPOP method accomplishes the following:       Provides a process for achieving AOC while ensuring stability of backfill material and minimization of stream impact. Determines a reasonable quantity of excess spoil that may be placed in excess spoil disposal sites such as valley fills and head of hollow fills. Optimizes the placement of spoil to reduce watershed impacts. Provides a structured process for use in permit reviews as well as field inspections of the mine site. Maintains the flexibility necessary for the operator to address site-specific mining and reclamation conditions. Establishes a permit area tolerance linked to triggers, reducing over-permitting and consequently preserving stream impact minimization throughout the life of the mine.

For additional information on FPOP, the reader is referred to Kentucky Energy and Environment Cabinet, Department for Natural Resources, Division of Mine Permits RAM No. 145, at http://minepermits.ky.gov/RAMS/RAM145.pdf While the changes in Kentucky were made for the primary purpose of ensuring fill stability and minimization, changes in the West Virginia regulations respond to erosion and flooding problems below unfinished durable rock fills. The current regulations stipulate, among other requirements, that the fills are constructed in one of two ways: (1) by establishment (prior to enddumping) of an “erosion protection zone” of mechanically placed and graded durable rock reaching a specified distance downslope of the final toe of the designed fill; or (2) construction of the fill from the toe upwards with dumping increments not exceeding 100 feet [38 CSR 2 14.14.g.2 and g.3]. The erosion protection zone is intended to reduce siltation down gradient of For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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the toe of the fill by dissipating runoff energy, but the erosion protection zone would likely enhance stability as well. 3.1.7.7 Mine Reclamation Mine reclamation is the process of backfilling, regarding and planting vegetation on a disturbed mine site to meet post mining land use requirements. Post mining land uses can range from industrial and commercial use to forestland. There are four essential steps to reclaiming a mine site: Backfilling – After coal removal, mine pits are backfilled with spoil from new excavations to restore the ground surface. Backfilling, also known as backstacking, may be accomplished by a variety of methods, including casting by draglines or shovels, cast blasting, dozer pushes, and truck haulage and dumping. Normally, mining will advance through a mine site in a series of adjacent excavations, or cuts, with the spoil from each new cut being placed in the pit void left by the previous cut. Almost all sites generate excess spoil that must be hauled to valley fills or other disposal fill types adjacent to the immediate mining area. Regrading – This activity is the leveling of spoil areas to final reclamation contours. After spoil casting or haulage and dumping, spoil areas usually have a very irregular surface that must be smoothed to better resemble a natural land surface. Regrading of spoil is primarily accomplished by dozers, with the final site topography determined by the site reclamation plan and postmining land use. These plans generally aim to achieve the SMCRA definition “Approximate Original Contour,” or AOC, which is discussed in greater detail later in this section. Topsoil Redistribution or Substitution – The final earthmoving activity is redistribution of stockpiled topsoil over the reclamation surface, or preparation of a rock-based topsoil substitute, if topsoil replacement is not employed. Where topsoil has been stockpiled, it is redistributed by dozers or scrapers at an application rate determined by available quantities, usually between 4 and 12 inches. On many mine sites in the study area, the existing topsoil is very thin or scattered among rock outcrops and cannot be efficiently stripped or segregated during clearing and grubbing, or has a low initial productivity. In these cases, a method of soil substitution has been developed, whereby acceptable strata in the overburden are placed on the regraded spoil surface. This material is then mechanically broken by passage of tracked equipment to produce a relatively fine-grained growing substrate. Use of topsoil substitutes requires a variance during the mine permitting process. Revegetation – Following spreading or preparation, the topsoil or topsoil substitute is amended with fertilizer to create a fertile growing substrate, and planted and seeded with species mixes reflecting the intended postmining land use. Most mine sites in the study area occur in forested areas, and tree planting is sometimes part of the revegetation process. Other shrub and herbaceous species may be included in the revegetation mix for wildlife habitat. Planting is normally conducted by hand or with tractor-towed mechanical planters, and seeding accomplished using hydroseeders that concurrently apply a stabilizing cellulose mulch and fertilizer. Revegetation planting and seeding mixes are approved as part of the mine permitting For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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process. If vegetation types or postmining land uses are proposed that differ from the premining land use of a site, then variance for postmining land use change must be approved. Forestry Reclamation Approach – In addition to the steps outlined above, the recently introduced Forestry Reclamation Approach (FRA) is a method of reclaiming surface coal mines to forested post-mining land use (see Forest Reclamation Advisory No. 2 at http://www.cses.vt.edu/PRP/ARRI/FRA-No2.pdf ). Any mined-land tree planting process entails several steps, each of which must be executed competently to assure a successful reforestation project. They are: 1) Create a suitable rooting medium for good tree growth that is no less than 4 feet deep and comprised of topsoil, weathered sandstone and/or the best available material. 2) Loosely grade the topsoil or topsoil substitute established in step one to create a compacted growth medium. 3) Use ground covers that are compatible with growing trees. 4) Plant two types of trees--early successional species for wildlife and soil stability, and commercially valuable crop trees. 5) Use proper tree planting techniques. Most coal-bearing lands in the Appalachian region were forested prior to mining. As a result of research and recent changes in regulatory policy, many surface coal mines are now being restored to native forest after mining using the Forestry Reclamation Approach. For additional information on FRA, the reader is referred to the Appalachian Regional Reforestation Initiative web page at http://arri.osmre.gov/. 3.1.7.8 Processing Facilities Both underground and surface mine coal may contain rock or excessive sulfur and not be suitable for immediate use by the consumer in its state at the mine mouth. This coal must be processed to remove the rock and blend with higher quality coal before delivery to the shipping point. Most underground mined coal must be processed, but some surface mined coal can be sold without processing. Underground run-of-mine coal can be 50% rock due to rock seam partings or the need to mine rock to gain height. Processing facilities may include such mechanisms as screens to separate coal into acceptable size grades, crushers to further reduce coal to desired size grades, and washing plants to clean rock and sulfur impurities from coal. Washing plants use a high density medium, usually magnetite, to float and separate low density clean coal from these contaminants with a closedloop water recycling system. Reject materials from screens and crushers and residue from washing plants are hauled or pumped to coal refuse disposal facilities.

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Figure 3.1-26

Coal Preparation Facilities

Processed coal may then be blended with other coal stock to achieve the desired market quality grades. Blending may be accomplished by mobile equipment, such as loaders, or using a system of mobile stacking conveyors. Stockpiles and/or silos are typically present on site to store raw, cleaned, and blended coal prior to transport. 3.1.7.9 Coal Refuse Disposal Facilities Reject material, or coal refuse (rock from the cleaning of coal, often consisting of shale), is typically disposed of off-site of a coal processing facility due to land occupancy requirements. Most older coal refuse disposal facilities are in the form of impoundments formed by constructing an embankment or dam across an existing hollow or valley, and essentially become “valley fills” by the time refuse disposal is completed. The embankment is often constructed from the coarser refuse material in a series of lifts as new material accumulates behind the embankment. Coal refuse disposal facilities are long-term investments because of their size, support facilities, and reclamation requirements. The typical life of a coal refuse disposal facility is approximately 20 years. One or more surface mines may contribute to a single coal processing facility and/or shipping point. Under normal circumstances, about 10 to 15 percent of surface mine output will For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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go to a processing facility for cleaning and blending, and the rest will be transported directly to the shipping point. Refuse with small particle sizes, known as fines, is usually pumped in slurry form from the processing facility to the refuse impoundment behind the berm. Aside from storage, the refuse impoundments serve to settle fines and decant clean water from the pumping slurry. In addition to being stored in impoundments, coal processing waste can also be pumped or injected into abandoned underground mine workings. Underground injection wells are used in many mining regions throughout the country to inject a mixture of water and sand, mill tailings, or other materials (e.g., coal combustion ash, coal cleaning wastes, acid mine drainage (AMD) treatment sludge, flue gas desulfurization sludge) into mined out portions of underground mines. On occasion, injection (in low porosity grout form) also occurs into the rubble disposal areas at surface mining sites. Mine shafts and pipelines in an underground mine, as well as more “conventional” drilled wells, used to place slurries and solids in underground mines are considered mine backfill. Such wells may be used to provide subsidence control (the most common purpose), enhanced ventilation control, fire control, reduced surface disposal of mine waste, enhanced recovery of minerals, mitigation of AMD, and improved safety. According to the state and USEPA Regional survey conducted for this study, there are approximately 5,000 documented mine backfill wells and more than 7,800 wells estimated to exist in the United States A total of 17 states report having underground injection wells. More than 90 percent of the documented wells reported are in four states: Ohio (3,570), Idaho (575); West Virginia (401), and North Dakota (200). A special permit from the state regulatory authority or the EPA is required of the operator to commence underground injection operations. These injection wells are considered Class V (mining, sand, or other backfill wells) under the federal regulations found at 40 CFR 144 and 146. State regulations pertaining to mine backfill wells vary significantly in their scope and stringency. Some states impose few restrictions while others require permitting, or impose requirements by contract rather than regulation. Some of these approaches include permit by rule (e.g., West Virginia, Idaho, North Dakota), general or area permits (e.g., Wyoming), and individual permits (e.g., Ohio). In addition, federal requirements for planning and approval of mining activities include mine backfill activities. These requirements apply in states that have not obtained primacy under SMCRA and to activities on federal and Native American tribal lands. [The Class V Underground Injection Control Study, Vol. 10, Mining, Sand and Other Backfill Wells. United States Environmental Protection Agency 1999. http://www.epa.gov/ogwdw/uic/class5/pdf/study_uic-class5_classvstudy_volume10minebackfill.pdf ] 3.1.7.10 Coal Refuse Recovery Operations Coal refuse is a low BTU-value material generated by the coal mining process. Large volumes of coal refuse accumulated at mining sites from the time mining first began in the Appalachians through the late 1970s. Beginning in the late 1970s, laws were enacted that, for the first time, For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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required stabilization and reclamation of mining sites, including coal refuse disposal piles and fills. Current mining operations continue to generate the material, though likely at lower rates than in previous decades. Mining rejects are referred to by various names, including: “gob” (garbage of bituminous) or “boney” in the bituminous coal mining regions of western Pennsylvania, West Virginia and elsewhere; and “culm” in the eastern Pennsylvania anthracite region. Re-mining of existing coal refuse facilities to recover coal has developed into a niche industry. Development plans must be prepared for the safe excavation and removal of coal refuse from disposal facilities while maintaining the original geotechnical and hydraulic design criteria and considering the potential for shutdowns experienced with such operations. http://www.msha.gov/Impoundments/DesignManual/Chapter-2.pdf Some remining of prelaw areas takes place as AML enhancement operations.

3.1.8 Bonding and Financial Assurance
Activation of a mine permit requires reclamation bonds be posted on areas to be disturbed by surface or underground mining methods. The purpose of these bonds is to provide assurance that the coal operator will reclaim the mine site according to the approved reclamation plan, or to provide funds for the government to complete the reclamation work should a coal operator forfeit its responsibilities to reclaim. Bond amounts are based on a “worst case” scenario in relation to the maximum amount of disturbed area open at any one given time and may range from a few hundred thousand dollars to many millions of dollars. The amount of the bond should be sufficient to assure the completion of the reclamation plan if the work had to be performed by the regulatory authority in the event of forfeiture. Reclamation bonds are released in phases. Phase 1 bond releases are granted after satisfactory backfilling and regarding have been completed on the disturbed area. Phase 2 releases are granted after completion of revegetation activities. Phase 3 releases are granted after the approved post-mining land use (“PMLU”) is met (i.e. meets all performance standards and the approved permit plan). There are three major types of reclamation bonds: corporate surety bonds, collateral bonds (cash; certificates of deposit; first-lien interests in real estate; letters of credit; federal, state, or municipal bonds; and investment-grade securities), and self bonds (legally binding corporate promises without separate surety or collateral, available only to permittees who meet certain financial tests). State regulatory programs vary somewhat in terms of which financial instruments are acceptable. A few states also have exercised their discretion to exclude the selfbond option. To remain qualified, self-bonded permittees must maintain a tangible net worth of at least $10 million, possess fixed assets in the U.S. of at least $20 million, and either meet certain financial ratios or have an "A" or higher bond rating. Collateral posted for a bond must be owned solely by the permittee, be free of all liens, and be valued at current market value not face value. The regulatory authority reduces the market value For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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of collateral by a margin sufficient to cover the regulatory authority's cost to liquidate the collateral in the event funds are needed for reclamation. Subject to regulatory authority approval, a permittee may post any combination of bond types and instruments recognized under the applicable regulatory program provided the total sum equals the required reclamation bond amount at all times. Each regulatory authority must prescribe and furnish forms for filing reclamation bonds. These forms differ for each type of bond. Each form must meet the requirements of the applicable regulatory program. [See 30 CFR Part 800 for Office of Surface Mining (OSM) regulatory requirements]. In addition, each form must comply with standard contract law, property law, the Uniform Commercial Code, banking law, and surety law. The providers of the bonds are subject to the laws of their regulators: state insurance commissioners, state banking examiners, and the Comptroller of the Currency. Some bond instruments such as certificates of deposit are negotiable instruments that need to be secured. All bond documents need to be systematically filed and protected. Therefore, OSM and state regulatory authority offices secure bond instruments in locked filing cabinets, vaults, or fireproof safes to protect them from loss, theft, or fire. Regulatory authorities use computer databases to track the status of the bonds they are holding. Reclamation performance bonds are posted to cover all operations during the term of the permit. Prior to permit issuance, the permittee must post a bond to cover one of the following areas:
  

The entire permit area; The initial area of land to be affected under a cumulative bond schedule; or The initial area of land to be affected under an incremental bond schedule.

The regulatory authority must approve cumulative and incremental bond schedules should the permittee select one of those options. Under either a cumulative or an incremental bond schedule, the permittee must post additional bond before affecting lands in succeeding increments or additional lands in accordance with the approved cumulative schedule. Reclamation bonds are financial instruments with unique attributes and requirements. Some instruments are the pledged assets of a mining company (cash, real estate, government securities), some are guarantees of a permittee's performance (surety bonds), and some are instruments that provide evidence of a deposit of cash (certificates of deposit) or the existence of a line of credit (letters of credit). All bonds must be payable to, or pledged to, the regulatory authority. When the federal government owns either the surface or coal on lands within the permit area and a state is the regulatory authority for those lands, the bond must be payable jointly to both the state and the United States. When OSM is the regulatory authority, all bonds must be payable to the United States. A permittee wishing to post a corporate surety bond or letter of credit must obtain one from a surety company or other financial institution. A surety company must be licensed in the state where the operation is located. The financial institution must be organized to do business in the United States. The decision to issue a surety bond or letter of credit will be based on the surety For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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company's or financial institution’s analysis of the permittee's credit rating, experience, and net worth. Some surety companies and financial institutions require full or partial collateral from the permittee and a contract or indemnity agreement. These agreements require the permittee to reimburse the bank or surety company for any forfeited amount the bank or surety company paid to the regulatory authority. The permittee also pays an annual premium or fee to the surety company or financial institution. Unlike the premium for an insurance policy, the premium for a surety bond is not based on the risk of a claim being filed. Instead, the premium consists of a percentage of the bond amount. The Surety & Fidelity Association of America recommends average premium rates to the surety industry. The annual fee that the permittee pays for a letter of credit is based on a percentage of the amount of the letter of credit. Letters of credit must be irrevocable during their terms. Surety bonds must be noncancellable during their terms, except for coverage on undisturbed land with the regulatory authority's prior approval of the cancellation. When a surety company writes a surety bond, it guarantees the mining company's completion of the reclamation plan approved in the permit. If the permittee does not reclaim the site, the surety company must pay the bond sum to the regulatory authority. The regulatory authority may allow the surety to perform the reclamation in lieu of paying the bond amount. However, the surety must comply with all reclamation requirements of the approved permit and regulatory program, including the revegetation responsibility period. Corporate surety bonds posted to meet the bonding requirements section 509 of SMCRA are noncancellable, even for the failure to pay premiums or bankruptcy of the permittee. In some instances, surety bonds have been issued by individuals fraudulently posing as representatives of legitimate surety companies. To avoid fraud, the surety industry encourages regulatory authorities to verify the bond with the home office of the surety company and to use the Surety & Fidelity Association of America’s Bond Obligee's Guide, which can be viewed or downloaded at http://www.surety.org. When mining federal property (leased federal coal or land in federal surface ownership), corporate surety bonds may only be accepted from surety companies that are listed in the U.S. Department of the Treasury’s Listing of Certified Companies (Circular 570), which is updated annually on July 1 and can be viewed and downloaded at www.fms.treas.gov/c570. The regulatory authority establishes the minimum amount of bond required, based upon the permittee's estimate of reclamation costs and the regulatory authority's independent analysis of the amount that would be necessary for a third party to complete the reclamation plan in the event of bond forfeiture. The bond amount generally reflects reclamation costs at the projected point of maximum reclamation liability (usually the point of maximum disturbance) within the permit area or an initial increment of that area. Prior to disturbing new acreage, the permittee must post additional bond. In addition, the regulatory authority must require the permittee to post additional bond whenever the cost of future reclamation increases. As the permittee completes phases of reclamation, the permittee may apply for partial bond release. [OSM Bond Overview http://www.osmre.gov/topic/Bonds/BondsOverview.shtm ] Complete release of reclamation bonds on a given area typically requires five years after completion of all reclamation activities, and may be delayed further if satisfactory reclamation For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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has not been achieved. Additional time may be required for attainment of certain PMLUs, such as commercial forest land, industrial, commercial, etc. Generally, once mining has begun on large sites, the only feasible reclamation plan is to complete the mining according to the original plan. [ECSI Cumulative Impact Assessment for the North Fork Kentucky River Watershed 2009] 3.1.8.1 Alternative Bonding Systems In lieu of requiring permittees to post a bond covering the entire estimated cost of completing the approved reclamation plan, some states authorize or require permittees to participate in an alternative bonding system, which is commonly known as a "bond pool." Under these systems, the permittee normally posts a conventional bond (surety bond, letter of credit, etc.) for an amount determined by multiplying the number of acres in the permit area by a flat per-acre assessment, which may vary depending on the type and site-specific characteristics of the planned mining operation. In addition, the permittee generally must pay an annual acreage fee or a tonnage fee as coal is mined. These funds are used to reclaim any site for which a participant in the alternative bonding system fails to complete all reclamation obligations. Under OSM regulations, all alternative bonding systems must provide a significant economic incentive for the permittee to comply with reclamation requirements and they must ensure that the regulatory authority has adequate resources to complete the reclamation plan for any sites that may be in default at any time. OSM Bond Overview: http://www.osmre.gov/topic/Bonds/BondsOverview.shtm

3.1.9 Mineral Resources and Mining by Region
This section outlines the types of coal resources and reserves present in each of the seven study regions and coal production within each region. As shown on the charts below, production and the type of mining method used varies by region. Figure 3.1-27 Pie Chart Showing Percent Production by Region

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0.1% 8.4%

Illinois Basin Appalachian Basin 46.3% 33.3% Other Western Interior Colorado Plateau Gulf Coast Northern Rocky Mountains Northwest

0.2% 3.9% 7.7%

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Figure 3.1-28

Bar Graph Showing Production by Surface and Underground Mining by Region
Surface Coal Underground Coal

600,000 

500,000 

2008 Production (Thousands  Short Tons)

400,000 

300,000 

200,000 

100,000 

‐ Northern Rocky  Mountains Appalachian Basin Illinois Basin Colorado Plateau Gulf Coast Other Western  Interior Northwest

Figure 3.1-29

Coal Production by Region

Production By Region
600,000,000 

500,000,000 

Northwest Northern Rocky Mountains  & Great  Plains Gulf Coast Other Western Interior

400,000,000 

Tons

300,000,000 

Illinois Basin

200,000,000 

100,000,000 

‐ 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

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3.1.9.1 Appalachian Basin Mining The Appalachian Basin includes coal reserves located in Alabama, Georgia, eastern Kentucky, Maryland, North Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia. This region accounts for approximately 20% of the nation’s overall demonstrated reserves, 35% of the nation’s demonstrated bituminous reserves, and 98% of the nation’s demonstrated anthracite reserves. Figure 3.1-30 Map of Appalachian Basin

3.1.9.1.1

Location of Regional Coal Reserves

The Appalachian Basin contains six coal producing regions, shown above. These are the Pocahontas Number 3 Coal Bed, the Fire Clay Coal Zone, the Pond Creek Coal Zone, the Pittsburgh Coal Bed, the Upper Freeport Coal Bed, and the Lower Kittanning Coal Bed. In practice, the Appalachian basin has traditionally been divided into three coal producing regions based on geologic structure and stratigraphy: the Northern Appalachian Basin, located in western Pennsylvania, eastern Ohio, western Maryland, and northern West Viginia; the Central Appalachian Basin, located in west-central and southwestern Virginia, eastern Kentucky, northern Tennessee, and southwestern Virginia; and the Southern Appalachian Basin, located in southern Tennessee, northern Alabama, and northwestern Georgia. For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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3.1.9.1.2

Property Ownership6

Federal surface lands along the eastern seaboard of the United States include U.S. military properties, Tribal land, national parks and forests, water bodies, and other recreational areas and monuments. A USGS study determined that within four assessed coal beds in the Appalachian Basin (Pittsburgh, Upper Freeport, Pond Creek, and Pocahontas No. 3), Federal surface ownership accounts for under 5 percent of their total resource areas. Federal surface ownership accounts for about 15 percent of the area in the Fire Clay coal zone. While surface ownership does not necessarily imply ownership of mineral rights, remaining coal resources underlying Federal surface ownership have been estimated by the USGS for five coal beds in the Appalachian Basin. Coal resources underlying Federal surface ownership total: 860 million short tons in the Pittsburgh coal bed; 5,500 million short tons in the Upper Freeport coal bed; 1,100 million short tons in the Fire Clay coal zone; 570 million short tons in the Pond Creek coal zone; and 350 million short tons in the Pocahontas No. 3 coal bed. Thus, remaining tonnage for the five Appalachian coal beds assessed under Federal lands totals about 8,300 million short tons, of which all is not necessarily available for mining or economically feasible to mine. These statistics show that a significant amount of coal resources appear to be located under Federal lands in this region. About 36 percent of the Upper Freeport coal bed’s total remaining resources are located under Ohio Federal lands, while about 33 percent of the Fire Clay coal zone’s remaining resources in the state of Kentucky are under Federal lands, as well. About 86 percent of the remaining Fire Clay resources and 68 percent of the remaining Pond Creek coal zone resources in the state of Virginia are also under Federal lands. 3.1.9.1.3 Types of Coal Resources

Two types of coal are mined in the Appalachian region, bituminous and anthracite. Bituminous coal is found throughout the Appalachian Basin, and anthracite is found almost exclusively in northeastern Pennsylvania. The majority of the coal resources in this region located in thick beds with low to medium sulfur content and high Btus has been mined. The remaining resource is located in medium to thin beds and contains a higher sulfur content. High Btu resources remain recoverable through underground methods. Few large surface mineable resources remain. (Coal Resource Availability p.5) 3.1.9.1.4 Extraction Method

Surface mining accounted for 40% of the production in the Appalachian Basin in 2008 and about 14 billion short tons are estimated to be recoverable by this method. Surface mining in this region utilizes area mining and mountaintop mining methods using draglines, trucks and shovels, and front-end loaders. Contour mining methods are also employed in this area. Underground mining accounted for 60% of the production in the Appalachian Basin in 2008, with estimated recoverable underground reserves of 35.7 billion short tons. In Pennsylvania, underground mining accounted for 78 percent of the coal mined statewide7.

6 This section is derived from Tewalt (2002).

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Longwall mining operations are the predominant form of underground mining in this region. West Virginia leads the nation in underground coal production and has more longwall mining operations, 42, than any other state. Room-and-pillar mining using continuous miners is common in smaller resource areas and some small operations mine in beds above or below previously mined areas. In 2008, at mines producing over 10,000 tons, 51.3% of coal was mined by continuous methods, 47.3% was mined by longwall, and the remaining 1.4% was mined by conventional and other methods. In terms of efficiency, about 53 percent of the reserves were recovered in underground mining operations in Appalachia in 2008. In addition, auger and highwall mining was once common in this region, but production by this method has declined as most have caught up with the final highwalls. 3.1.9.1.5 Mine Size

As of 2008, the Appalachian Basin contained 968 active surface mines with 20,943 employees, while 742 underground mines employed 37,802 people. The Appalachian Basin accounts for 12 of the top 51 producing mines in the United States, which are located in Pennsylvania, Ohio, and West Virginia. These twelve mines were responsible for 21% of the coal produced in this region in 2008. 3.1.9.1.6 Production, Production Trends, and Efficiency

Overall, coal production in Appalachia produced 390.2 million short tons in 2008, an increase of 3.3% or 12.4 million short tons from 2007 numbers. Prior to 2008, coal production in Appalachia had been in decline for the two years before. (EIA 2008 Coal Report) The graph below shows historic production trends, which have declined since the mid-1990s. Figure 3.1-31 Production Trends in the Appalachian Basin

7 OSM 2009 Annual Evaluation Summary Report for Pennsylvania, available at: http://osmre.gov/Reports/EvalInfo/2009/PA09-aml-reg.pdf

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Appalachian Basin Production (tons)
4.90E+08 4.70E+08 4.50E+08 4.30E+08 4.10E+08 3.90E+08 3.70E+08 3.50E+08

In terms of efficiency, surface mines in Appalachia average 4.9 tons per man-hour, while underground mines average 4.5 tons per man-hour, making them slightly less efficient than surface mines. The producing mines in this region reported an underground production capacity of 293.7 million tons and a surface production capacity of 210.5 million tons in 2008 (some data was withheld by the EIA to avoid disclosure), while the region as a whole produced 390.2 million short tons. The mines of the region utilized 79% of underground production and 74% of surface production for a total utilization of 77% of the resource. The projected remaining recoverable reserves in the Appalachian Basin are approximately 49.6 billion short tons, 48.8 billion short tons of which are bituminous reserves, while 0.8 billion short tons are anthracite reserves. The anthracite reserves are located almost exclusively in Pennsylvania. 3.1.9.2 Colorado Plateau Mining The Colorado Plateau is located in the Four Corners region of Colorado, Utah, New Mexico, and Arizona. Colorado, Utah, and New Mexico account for the majority of coal production within the Colorado Plateau Region; however, Arizona also produced coal from this region as of 2008. The estimated demonstrated reserves within this region add up to 25.4 billion short tons, 14 billion of which are estimated as recoverable. Recoverable reserves include mostly bituminous and subbituminous coal with a minimal amount of anthracite. Coal from this region is high in calorific value (Btu/lb.) and low in sulfur content.

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3.1.9.2.1

Location of Regional Coal Reserves Figure 3.1-32 Map of Coal Bearing Regions in the Colorado Plateau

The coal-bearing regions in the Colorado Plateau are predominantly located in eastern Colorado, eastern Utah, and northwestern New Mexico. As shown on the map above, coal beds in this region include the Wasatch Plateau and Kaiparowits Plateau in Utah, the San Juan Basin, which straddles the border between Colorado and New Mexico, and the Deserado Coal Area, the Piceance Basin, the Yampa Coal Field, and Danforth Hills in western Colorado. 3.1.9.2.2 Property Ownership

Coal is present beneath Federal, Tribal, State, and private lands in the Colorado Plateau region. About 50 percent of the surface coal-bearing areas in the Colorado Plateau region are administered by the Bureau of Land Management, the U.S. Forest Service, the National Park Service, or other Federal agencies. About 23 percent of the coal-bearing area consists of Tribal lands, which, although held in trust by the U.S. government, are not considered Federal lands. About 26 percent of the coal-bearing region is administered by State agencies or is privately owned. In 1997, about 30 percent (330 million short tons) of coal mined in the United States came from Federal lands, 52,180 thousands of short tons of which came from the Colorado Plateau region, namely Utah, Colorado, and New Mexico. More than 360 billion tons of Federal coal exists in this region, making up about 71 percent of the total coal resources in the region. For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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3.1.9.2.3

Types of Coal Resources

The Colorado Plateau contains both bituminous coal, which spans the border of Colorado and Utah, and subbituminous coal, which exists predominantly in New Mexico and parts of Colorado. The San Juan Basin continues to contain large amounts of low to medium sulfur, low Btu, high ash coal that is recoverable through dragline or truck and shovel methods. Longwall operations will continue to be used for most deep mining, where coal seems are thicker, low in sulfur, and contain high Btu values. 3.1.9.2.4 Extraction Method

Surface mining accounted for 38% of production in the Colorado Plateau in 2008, most of which were medium or large box cut area mines or open pit mines. About 4.8 billion tons of coal remain mineable by surface methods. (EIA) Underground mining accounted for 62 percent of production in 2008, with 98 percent of that coming from longwall mining operations. The other 2 percent of underground production utilizes the continuous mining method. The EIA estimates that about 9.2 billion short tons are recoverable by underground methods in the region. Underground mining in the Colorado Plateau is more efficient than in most regions, with 63 percent of underground mined coal recovered in 2008. (EIA) 3.1.9.2.5 Mine Size

In 2008, the Colorado Plateau contained 25 underground mines employing 4,305 people and ten surface mines employing 1,921 people. The region contains 9 of the top 51 producing mines in the country, five of which are ranked in the top 25 producing mines. 3.1.9.2.6 Production, Production Trends, and Efficiency Figure 3.1-33 Production Trends in the Colorado Plateau

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Colorado Plateau
1.E+08 1.E+08 1.E+08 9.E+07 9.E+07 8.E+07 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 Colorado Plateau

In 2008, the Colorado Plateau region produced 20,359 thousand short tons of bituminous coal and 7,908 short tons of subbituminous coal. Together, Colorado and Utah produced 76.5% of the bituminous coal in this region, while New Mexico produced 71.9% of the subbituminous coal in the Colorado Plateau. Production in this region is fairly efficient, with surface mines averaging 8.6 tons per man-hour and underground mines averaging 6.2 tons per man-hour. In 2008, producing underground mines that disclosed data had the capacity to produce 27 million short tons and utilized 90% of that capacity, while the overall production capacity of the region based on disclosed figures was 97.3 million tons at a utilization of 84%. The EIA estimates that about 14 billion short tons of coal are recoverable within this region, making up 55 percent of the region’s demonstrated reserves. These reserves represent about 5 percent of the nation’s recoverable reserves. At currently permitted operations, the EIA estimates that about 1,142 million short tons are recoverable, which is 6.6 percent of the total reserves permitted in the United States in 2008. 3.1.9.3 Gulf Region Mining 3.1.9.3.1 Location of Regional Coal Reserves Figure 3.1-34 Map of Coal Bearing Regions in the Gulf Coast

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The Gulf Coast Region is home to a wide spread area of lignite coal reserves, the majority of which are located in Texas, the largest coal producing state in the region. The coal-bearing area runs mainly through southeastern Texas, northern and central Louisiana, Mississippi, southern Alabama, and southern and eastern Arkansas. This area includes the Claiborne Group, the Wilcox Group, the Jackson Group, the Naheola Formation, and the Olmos Formation. 3.1.9.3.2 Property Ownership

Federal surface lands in the Gulf Coast Region include lands managed by the U.S. Department of Defense, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and Bureau of Indian Affairs. Although no systematic inventory of Federal mineral ownership exists for this region, initial studies indicate that about half of the Federal surface estate in the Gulf Coast Region is underlain by federally owned minerals. 3.1.9.3.3 Types of Coal Resources All of the remaining reserves in this region are lignite, the lowest rank of coal with the lowest amount of energy (or Btus). Mining in this region occurs exclusively by surface methods. The predominant mining technique is by dragline, although scrapers may be used in some operations with smaller outputs where thinner seams are mined. Most remaining deposits are multibedded and would require a combination of dragline and truck and shovel methods to extract. Bucket wheel excavator stripping operations are employed, as well, but limited to special conditions and circumstances. For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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Overall, the Gulf Coast produced 45.7 million short tons of coal in 2008, 85 percent of which was mined in Texas. The remaining 15% was mined in Mississippi and Louisiana. In 2008, 14 surface mines existed in the region, employing 2,743 workers. Of the top four producing mines in the country, four are located in Texas. The production rates for the mines in this region averaged 7.8 tons per man-hour. Of the mines reporting information, of the 40.6 million short tons mined in 2008, 96% of their capacity was utilized. The DRB in the Gulf Region is estimated to be 13.7 billion short tons. Remaining recoverable reserves in the region are estimated to be 10.5 billion short tons, or 76% of the DRB. All of the remaining reserves in the region are lignite. 3.1.9.3.4 Extraction Method

The most frequently implemented and successful method of mining in the Gulf Region is strip mining. Deposits located in this region are typically mined with a dragline, which is ideal due to the relatively soft overburden and flat digging conditions. In addition to the use of draglines, Texas Utilities is implementing a scraper/dozer method in lieu of the dragline method. Both methods allow for coal to be removed and placed into trucks for haulage. (Kahle (1983)) [Development of Mining Methods in Gulf Coast Lignites, M.B. Kahle and C.A. Moseley, Mining Engineering Aug. 1983] 3.1.9.3.5 Mine Size

As of 2008, the Gulf Coast region had 14 surface mines employing 2,743 workers. This region has four of the top 51 producing mines in the nation, all of which are located in Texas. 3.1.9.3.6 Production, Production Trends, and Efficiency Figure 3.1-35 Production Trends in the Gulf Region

Gulf Coast Production (tons)
6.0E+07 5.5E+07 5.0E+07 4.5E+07 4.0E+07

The Gulf Coast produced 45.7 million tons of coal in 2008. The production rate for the mines in this region averaged 7.8 tons per man-hour. The production capacity for the mines that were not

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withheld to avoid disclosure (those in Texas) in 2008 was 40.6 million short tons, and those same mines utilized 96% of that capacity. 3.1.9.4 Illinois Basin Mining 3.1.9.4.1 Location of Regional Coal Reserves The Illinois Basin includes Illinois, Indiana, and Western Kentucky. Michigan, which includes one coal bearing region, is also part of the Illinois Basin, but there is currently no active mining in the state.

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Figure 3.1-36

Coal Bearing Regions in the Illinois Basin

3.1.9.4.2

Property Ownership

Federal land ownership in the Illinois Basin is minimal, but includes the Shawnee National Forest in Southern Illinois, the Hoosier National Forest in Indiana, and several small National Wildlife Refuges. 3.1.9.4.3 Description of Coal Reserves

All coal in the Illinois Basin is bituminous. About 78 percent of the coal resources in this region are located in Illinois. The vast majority of potential coal reserves in the region, about 93 percent, are considered high-sulfur, with just 6 percent and 1 percent of medium- and low-sulfur coal, respectively. (USGS, Appalachian Basin and Illinois Basin Coal Depletion and Reserves, Chapter H of Coal Resources and Assessment Overview). For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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3.1.9.4.4

Extraction Method

Surface mining accounted for 35% of the production in Illinois in 2008, with estimated recoverable surface mineable reserves at 38.2 billion short tons. The dragline method is the predominant surface mining method in this region. Surface mines in the region produced 5.3 tons of coal per man hour, with a total production capacity of 44 million tons. Surface mines utilized 83 percent of the resource. Underground mining is the dominant mining method in this region, making up 65% of the production in the region in 2008. There are approximately 38.2 billion short tons that are estimated to be recoverable through underground mining in the Illinois Basin. Most of the coal produced by underground mining, 83 percent, uses the continuous mining method, while the remainder is produced by longwall mining. Using these methods, underground mines averaged about 62 percent recovery in 2008. Underground mines in the region produced 3.7 tons of coal per man hour, with a total production capacity of 77.6 million tons. Underground mines utilized 78 percent of the resource. 3.1.9.4.5 Mine Size

In 2008, there were 58 surface mines in the region, employing 2,658 people, while 46 underground mines contained 7,036 employees. Five of the top 51 producing mines in the United States in 2008, were located in the Illinois Basin. These five mines accounted for 25 percent of the production in the region during that year.

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3.1.9.4.6

Production, Production Trends, and Efficiency Figure 3.1-37 Production Trends in the Illinois Basin

Illinois Basin Production (tons)
1.4E+08

1.2E+08

1.0E+08

8.0E+07

The Illinois Basin produced 98.9 million short tons of coal in 2008. Of the demonstrated reserves in this region, about 38 percent, or 50.9 billion short tons, are estimated to be recoverable by the EIA. However, most of the unrecoverable reserves are located in underground mines. In 2008, 2,048 million tons of reserves were reported at permitted mines, which is about 11.9% of the U.S. total of permitted, recoverable coal. 3.1.9.5 Northern Rocky Mountains & Great Plains Mining 3.1.9.5.1 Location of Regional Coal Reserves Map of Coal Bearing Regions in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Figure 3.1-38

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The Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Region has reserves distributed through parts of Wyoming, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Colorado. As shown on the map below, the predominant coal basins in the region are the Green River Basin in the southern part of the region, the Hanna and Carbon Basins in southern Wyoming, the Power River Basin, which straddles Montana and Wyoming, and the Williston Basin in North Dakota and Montana. 3.1.9.5.2 Property Ownership

Most federal coal production comes from coal basins in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains region. About 32 percent of the 313 million acres of land in this region is federally surface managed. Federally owned coal resources are present on about 80 percent of the federally managed surface area in this region. Federal coal production in 1997 came predominantly from Wyoming and Montana and totaled about 280 million short tons. Federal coal production generates more than a quarter billion dollars in royalties annually, about half of which is disbursed to the States in which the coal was produced. In 1996, about $75,000,000 in royalties, more than 70 percent of the royalties distributed to the States, were disbursed to Montana, Wyoming, and North Dakota. 3.1.9.5.3 Types of Coal Resources

The Northern Rocky Mountains & Great Plains Region contains all ranks of coal excluding anthracite. Bituminous and subbituminous resources are found in Wyoming and Montana, and For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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lignite resources are found in the Montana, North Dakota and South Dakota. Over 94 percent of the coal mined in this region is subbituminous, with over 5 percent being lignite and a fraction of one percent begin bituminous. (EIA) The Powder River Basin is by far the nation’s largest source of low sulfur coal. (USGS Chapter H) 3.1.9.5.4 Extraction Method

About 99 percent of the mining in this region is surface mining. These mines tend to have a low stripping ratio, generally 1:1 to 4:1. Such minimal ratios are due to the combined benefits of shallow overburden and thicker coal seams. Recoverable reserves by strip mining are estimated to be 65.5 billion tons as of 2009. Surface mines in this region are primarily medium or large box cut area mines or open pit mines. In parts of the region, 70-foot or thicker seams exist and overburden to coal rations of 1:1 or less are not uncommon. Open-pit mining in these seams begins with uncovering a sufficient area of coal to allow extraction and to provide an open area for future overburden placement. Initial overburden is spread and stored on adjacent land areas and revegetated. Coal thickness usually necessitates a benching operation for removal with a loading shovel or similar equipment. Expansion of the pit can proceed in most any direction from this initial point, usually along only one course at a time until a limit is reached, such as a natural barrier, property line or outcrop. Overburden is trucked and dumped in mined-out areas of the pit and later graded to a contour compatible with surrounding terrain. Underground mining accounted for the remaining percent of coal production in 2008. In this region, underground mines tend to be either shaft or drift mines entering the coal seam beneath the final highwall. In 2009, the resources estimated to be recoverable by underground mining in this region were 60.8 billion tons. 3.1.9.5.5 Mine Size

In 2008, the region had 29 surface mines employing 8,555 workers and 3 underground mines employing 292 workers. In 2008, 21 mines from this region were in the top 51 producing mines in the United States. The top ten producing mines in the United States are located in Wyoming, while mines from North Dakota and Montana make up the remaining 4 mines in the top 14. These 14 mines produced 70% of the coal in the entire nation in 2008. The top two producing mines in Wyoming accounted for 26% of the coal produced in the United States in 2008. 3.1.9.5.6 Production, Production Trends, and Efficiency

In 2008, the Northern Rocky Mountains & Great Plains produced a total of 542 million short tons of coal. That same year, surface mines in this region produced at an average of 29.7 tons per man-hour, the highest rate of any region, while underground mines produced at an average of 6.1 tons per man-hour. The overall production rate of the region in 2008 averaged to 29.0 tons per man-hour. Mines in the Northern Rocky Mountains & Great Plains Region utilized 93% of the overall production capacity of 583.4 million tons in 2009. The region contains about 198.4 billion short tons in demonstrated reserves, 64% of which are estimated to be recoverable. 82% of the demonstrated reserves consist of subbituminous coal found in Wyoming and Montana. At active mine sites, the region contains about 9.16 billion For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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short tons in recoverable reserves, equal to about 53.1 percent of the unmined recoverable reserves at permitted mines in the United States. Montana has the largest amount of coal resources and coal reserves of any state in the nation, while Wyoming alone produces about 40% of the nation’s coal, mostly coming from large surface mines in the Powder River Basin. Figure 3.1-39 Production Trends in the Northern Rocky Mountains and Great Plains Region

Northern Rocky Moutnains & Great  Plains Production (tons)
6.0E+08 5.0E+08 4.0E+08 3.0E+08 2.0E+08

3.1.9.6 Northwest Mining 3.1.9.6.1 Location of Coal Reserves The Northwest Region includes Oregon, Washington, and Alaska. The only state in this region with active mining is Alaska, with only one active mine. Washington State’s only remaining coal mine, the Centralia Coal mine, owned by the Canadian based TransAlta Corporation, shut down in 2006. This open pit mine was the largest coal mine in Washington State, and supplied coal exclusively to the adjacent Centralia Power Plant, which is operated by TransAlta Centralia Generation, LLC. Coal from the Powder River Basin is now being used to supply the power plant. 3.1.9.6.2 Property Ownership

Only a small percentage of Alaska’s National Parks, National Wild and Scenic Rivers, National Wildlife Refuges, and National Wilderness Preservation Systems are coal bearing. Only 1.8 percent of these lands, which total about 142,000,000 acres, are coal bearing and contain only 0.6 percent of the nation’s demonstrated reserve base. In total, these areas contain approximately 4,086 million short tons of mineable coal.

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3.1.9.6.3

Types of Coal Resources

The Northwest Region contains bituminous resources in Washington and Alaska, subbituminous resources in Washington and Oregon, and lignite coal in Alaska. In 2008, only Alaska produced coal, all of which was surfaced mine at one mine site. The estimated recoverable reserves mineable by surface methods are 3 billion short tons, while .5 billion short tons are estimated to be mineable by underground methods in the Northwest Region. The Northwest Region’s only active mine, the Usibelli mine, is located about 10 miles from the entrance to Denali Nation Park. While low in sulfur, the coal from the Usibelli mine has a low calorific value averaging 7,650 Btu/lb. This site incorporates an area dragline method of coal extraction, using a 1300W walking dragline which is the largest land mobile machine in Alaska. Usibelli is a well established mine which will continue production for decades to come with its substantial coal reserves, estimated in 2009 to be in excess of 700 million tons. [Alaska’s Usibelli Coal: Three Generations and Counting, Coal Age, November 2009] 3.1.9.6.4 Mine Size, Production, Production Trends, and Efficiency

The Northwest Region’s only active mine employed 104 workers in 2008. In that same year, this mine produced 1.5 million short tons of coal. The efficiency of production was 6.3 tons of coal per man-hour. The Northwest Region has about 7.5 billion short tons of estimated demonstrated reserves, 47% of which are estimated to be recoverable. 91 percent of the estimated demonstrated reserves are only mineable using underground methods, with only about .5 billion short tons of the demonstrated reserve estimated to be mineable by surface methods.

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Figure 3.1-40

Production Trends in the Northwest Region

Northwest Production (tons)
8.0E+06 7.0E+06 6.0E+06 5.0E+06 4.0E+06 3.0E+06 2.0E+06 1.0E+06 0.0E+00

3.1.9.7 Other Western Interior Mining 3.1.9.7.1 Location of Coal Resources The Other Western Interior Region includes the states of Oklahoma, Kansas, Missouri, Iowa, and the west-central region of Arkansas. Missouri contains 54% of the 2009 estimated demonstrated reserves in the region; however, Oklahoma produces 73 percent of the currently mined reserves as of 2008. 3.1.9.7.2 Property Ownership

Federal land ownership in this region is limited largely to several national forests in Arkansas and Missouri, and Tribal lands in Oklahoma. There does not appear to be any data available regarding the location of coal reserves in relation to federally owned land for this region. 3.1.9.7.3 Types of Coal Resources

The coal in this region is all bituminous, except for coal found in west-central Arkansas, which contains the third highest amount of demonstrated reserves of anthracite in the nation, after Pennsylvania and Virginia. All coal mined in 2008 was bituminous. 3.1.9.7.4 Extraction Methods

Mining methods in the Western Interior Region includes both area surface mining and underground mining methods. Surface mining accounted for 75% of production in this region in 2008, producing about 1.5 million short tons. Remaining recoverable reserves mineable by surface methods total about 4.5 billion short tons. Underground mining produced .5 million short tons, or 25 percent of the production, in this region in 2008. Of the two underground mines in the Other Western Interior region, one produced coal from Oklahoma, the other produced coal For Official Use Only – Deliberative Process Materials
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Chapter 3 – Affected Environment FIRST WORKING DRAFT – 10/22/10 DO NOT DISTRIBUTE OUTSIDE DOI ANDCOOPERATING/COORDINATING AGENCIES/ENTITIES

from Arkansas. Both produced coal using continuous underground mining methods. The projected remaining reserves recoverable by underground mining methods in the region are 2.2 billion short tons. 3.1.9.7.5 Mine Size

The Other Western Interior Region consisted of 12 surface mines with 220 total employees and 2 surface mines with 140 total employees in 2008. As with the Northwest Region, none of the mines in the Other Western Interior Region produced significant tonnage to belong in the top 51 producing mines in the United States. 3.1.9.7.6 Production, Production Trends, and Efficiency

In 2008, underground mines in the Other Western Interior Region averaged 1.4 tons per manhour, while surface mines averaged 2.9 tons per man-hour. These averaged to a total of 2.3 tons per man-hour. Individual surface and underground information on production capacity was withheld to avoid disclosure; however, Oklahoma’s mines, both surface and underground together, had a production capacity of 40.6 million tons; therefore, Oklahoma mines produced coal at 77% capacity in 2008. Of the estimated demonstrated reserves in this region, about 60% are classified as recoverable reserves. Figure 3.1-41 Production Trends in the Other Western Interior

Other Western Interior Production  (tons)
4.0E+06 3.5E+06 3.0E+06 2.5E+06 2.0E+06 1.5E+06

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