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DOE/EIA-0064(93) Distribution Category UC-98

Coal Data: A Reference

February 1995

Energy Information Administration Office of Coal, Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels U.S. Department of Energy Washington, DC 20585

This report was prepared by the Energy Information Administration, the independent statistical and analytical agency within the Department of Energy. The information contained herein should not be construed as advocating or reflecting any policy position of the Department of Energy or of any other organization.

Contacts
This report was prepared in the Supply Analysis Branch, Analysis and Systems Division, Office of Coal, Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels. General information regarding this publication may be obtained from John Geidl, Director, Office of Coal, Nuclear, Electric and Alternate Fuels (202/254-5570); Robert M. Schnapp, Director, Analysis and Systems Division (202/254-5392); Betsy O’Brien, Chief, Supply Analysis Branch; or B. D. Hong (202/254-5365). Specific questions should be addressed to Eugene R. Slatick, (202254-5384). Questions on current coal and other energy statistics should be directed to NEIC (202/586-8800).

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Preface
Section 205(a)(2) of the Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977 (Public Law 95-91) requires the Administrator of the Energy Information Administration (EIA) to carry out a central, comprehensive, and unified energy data and information program that will collect, evaluate, assemble, analyze, and disseminate data and information relevant to energy resources, reserves, and related economic and statistical information. The legislation that created EIA vested the organization with an element of statutory independence. EIA does not take positions on policy questions. EIA’s responsibility is to provide timely, high-quality information and to perform objective, credible analyses. As part of EIA’s program to provide information on coal, this report, Coal Data: A Reference, summarizes basic information on the mining and use of coal, an important source of energy in the United States. This report is written for a general audience. The goal is to cover basic material and strike a reasonable compromise between overly generalized statements and detailed analyses. The section “Supplemental Figures and Tables” contains statistics, graphs, maps, and other illustrations that show trends, patterns, geographic locations, and similar coal-related information. The section “Coal Terminology and Related Information” provides additional information about terms mentioned in the text and introduces some new terms. The last edition of Coal Data: A Reference was published in 1991. The present edition contains updated data as well as expanded reviews and additional information. Added to the text are discussions of coal quality, coal prices, unions, and strikes. The appendix has been expanded to provide statistics on a variety of additional topics, such as: trends in coal production and royalties from Federal and Indian coal leases, hours worked and earnings for coal mine employment, railroad coal shipments and revenues, waterborne coal traffic, coal export loading terminals, utility coal combustion byproducts, and trace elements in coal. The information in this report has been gleaned mainly from the sources in the bibliography. The reader interested in going beyond the scope of this report should consult these sources. The statistics are largely from reports published by the Energy Information Administration.

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

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Contents
A Brief History of U.S. Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . United States Coal: An Overview . . . . . . . . Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Nature of Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Resources and Reserves . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Employment, Productivity, and Earnings Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Supply and Stocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coal and Coke Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coal and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . Coal Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Page

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1 3 3 4 6 8 10 16 21 23 25 28 30 30 36 37 40 45

Supplemental Figures and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Coal Terminology and Related Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121 Sources of Information on Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

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Tables
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. U.S. Coal Production from the 10 Leading Coalbeds, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The 10 Leading U.S. Coal-Producing States, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Peak Year of U.S. Coal Production by State, Through 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cumulative Coal Production by State, 1890-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The 10 Leading U.S. Coal-Producing Companies, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The 10 Leading States in U.S. Coal Mine Employment, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The 10 Leading U.S. Coal-Consuming States, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Demonstrated Reserve Base of Coal by Potential Mining Method and Ranked by State Total, January 1, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Estimates of U.S. Recoverable Coal Reserves by Btu/Sulfur Content and Region, 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Production and Related Statistics, Selected Years, 1980, 1985, 1990-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region and State, Selected Years, 1970, 1980, 1990-1993 . . . . Total U.S. Coal Production and Number of Mines by State and Type of Mining, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Underground Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region, State, and Coalbed Thickness, 1993 . . U.S. Surface Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region, State, and Coalbed Thickness, 1993 . . . . . . U.S. Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region, State, and Coalbed Thickness, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production (Sales Volume) from Federal and Indian Coal Lands Compared with Production from Other Sources and Coal Royalties, Selected Years, 1970, 1975, 1980-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Mining Acreage, Production (Sales Volume) and Royalties from Federal and Indian Leases by State, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Production Trends in Bituminous Coal and Lignite, 1900-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production Trends in Pennsylvania Anthracite, 1900-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Labor Productivity in Coal Mining, 1949-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Profile of U.S. Coal Miners, 1986 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Mining Average Employment, Hours Worked, and Earnings, Selected Years, 1980, 1985, 1990-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Mine Injuries, Selected Years, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Supply and Disposition, 1949-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Year-End Stocks of U.S. Coal by End-Use Sector, 1949-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coke Supply and Disposition, 1949-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Consumption by End-Use Sector, 1949-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Consumption by Census Division and State, 1989-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Consumption by End-Use Sector and by Census Division and State, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Prices, 1949-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average Mine Price of U.S. Coal by Mining Method, 1980-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average Mine Price of U.S. Coal by Rank, 1980-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average Mine Price of U.S. Coal by State and Mining Method, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Foreign Direct Investment in U.S. Coal, and Share of Total U.S. Coal Production, 1980-1992 . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Mining Cost Comparisons by Mining Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quality and Cost of Coal Receipts of U.S. Electric Utilities of 50 Megawatts or Larger Nameplate Capacity by Coal Rank, 1990-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cost of Contract and Spot Coal Receipts at U.S. Electric Utilities of 50 Megawatts of Larger Nameplate Capacity, 1981-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Receipts and Price by Sulfur Content at Electric Utility Plants, by State of Origin and Imports, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Electricity Generation by Energy Source, Selected Years, 1980, 1985, 1990-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major U.S. Coal-Carrying Railroad Systems, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Rail Transportation of Coal, 1980-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coal Handled and Revenue Received by Major U.S. Coal-Carrying Railroads, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Waterborne Traffic: Coal and Coal Coke as Compared with Other Fossil Fuels and Other Commodities, 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 17 18 18 20 21 31 48 48 54 57 58 60 61 62 63 64 65 67 69 70 70 71 75 77 78 79 81 82 85 86 86 87 87 88 89 90 91 91 92 92 93 93

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Tables (Continued)
44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. U.S. Coal Export Loading Terminals, 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Exports by Country of Destination, 1960-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Bituminous Coal Exports by Grade of Coal, 1975-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Produced for Export, by Origin and Destination, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Air Pollutant Emission Estimates from Coal Combustion as Compared with Total Emissions and Total Coal Consumption, Selected Years, 1970, 1980, 1990-1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Utility Coal Combustion Byproducts: Production and Use, 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trace Elements in U.S. Coal: Highest Average Concentration by Rank and Widest Range by Region and Rank of Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of Coals by Rank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Approximate Weights of Unbroken (Solid) Coal in the Ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Representative Analyses of U.S. Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Standard Anthracite Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Page . . . . 94 97 98 99

. . . . . 104 . . . . . 105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 107 107 108 109

Figures
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. Approximate Heat Content of Different Coal Ranks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average Thickness of U.S. Coalbeds Mined, by State, in 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Demonstrated Reserve Base of Coal, January 1, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coal Mining Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Underground Mining Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Underground Coal Production by Mining Techniques, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Area Surface Mining with Dragline and Shovel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Production, 1890-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Basic Flow of Coal Through a Preparation Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Daily Per Capita Coal Consumption, 1950-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic of a Coal-Fired Power Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Using Coal in a Blast Furnace to Make Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production of Coke and Coal Chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Schematic of Coal Gasification, Great Plains Synfuels Plant, Beulah, North Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . Major Destinations of U.S. Coal Exports and Shipments from Selected U.S. Coal-Exporting Customs Districts, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Selected Developments in the History of U.S. Coal Since 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Estimates of Recoverable Coal Reserves by Btu/Sulfur Ranges and Region, January 1, 1992 . . . . . . . Regional Patterns of U.S. Coal Production, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Production of Energy by Source, 1960-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Consumption of Energy by Source, 1960-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Production by State, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal-Producing Counties in the United States, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average Number of U.S. Coal Miners by Type of Mining, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Production by Rank, 1970-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Production by Region and Type of Mining, 1970-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Mining Fatalities, 1900-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coal Distribution from the Three-Leading Coal-Producing States, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Production: End Use Distribution by Supplying Area, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coal Shipments for U.S. Consumption by Supplying Areas and by Transportation Methods, 1993 . . U.S. Coal Supply and Disposition Patterns, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Coal Consumption by End-Use Sector, 1950-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Page . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 7 9 10 11 12 13 15 17 27 31 32 33 34 35 37 46 47 49 50 50 51 52 53 56 59 71 72 73 74 76 80

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

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Figures (Continued)
33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. Coal-Fired Generating Units: Number, Generating Capability, and Electricity Generation in 1992 as Compared with Other Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of Total Electricity Generating Capability Using Coal, by State, December 31, 1992 . . . U.S. Coal Exports, 1970-1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . World Coal Production and Leading Coal-Producing Countries, 1980-1992 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average Quality of Coal Produced for Power Plants by Producing State, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cost and Quality of Coal Shipped to Electric Utilities, by Origin, 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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83 84 100 101 102 103

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

A Brief History of U.S. Coal
Coal was reportedly used by the Indians of the Southwest long before the early explorers arrived in America. The first record of coal in what is now the United States is a map prepared in 1673-74 by Louis Joliet. It shows “charbon de terra” along the Illinois River in northern Illinois. About a quarter of a century later, in 1701, coal was discovered near Richmond, Virginia. A map drawn in 1736 shows the location of several “cole mines” along the upper Potomac River, near what is now the border of Maryland and West Virginia. Before the end of the 1750’s coal was reported in Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, and West Virginia. Pennsylvania’s anthracite deposits were found about 1762. Blacksmiths in colonial days used small amounts of “fossil coal” or “stone coal” to supplement the charcoal normally burned in their forges. Farmers dug coal from beds exposed at the surface and sold it by the bushel. Although most of the coal for the larger cities along the eastern seaboard was imported from England and Nova Scotia, some came from Virginia. The first commercial U.S. coal production began near Richmond, Virginia, in 1748, more than a century before the beginning of the domestic oil industry. By the late 1800’s, coal was being produced in most of the States. Coal became the principal fuel used by locomotives. As the railroads branched into the coalfields, they became a vital link between mines and markets. Coal also found growing markets as fuel for households and steamboats. Another use of coal was to produce illuminating oil and gas. In 1816, Baltimore, Maryland, became the first city to light streets with gas made from coal. With the beginning of the U.S. coke industry in the latter half of the 1800’s, coke soon replaced charcoal as the chief fuel for iron blast furnaces. Briquetting of coal was introduced in the United States about 1870. Coal-fired steam generators began to produce electricity in the 1880’s. The first practical coal-fired electric generating station, developed by Thomas Edison, went into operation in New York City in 1882 to supply electricity for household lights. In the earliest mines, coal was quarried from beds that were exposed at the surface. To get more coal, the miners had to follow the coalbed underground. Before coal-cutting machines became available in the late 1880’s, coal was mined underground by hand. Mechanical coal-loading equipment introduced in the early 1920’s replaced hand loading and increased productivity. Mules and, to a lesser degree, horses and oxen were used to haul coal and refuse in and around the early mines; a few dogs were used in small mines working thin coalbeds. In time, the animals were replaced by electric locomotives, dubbed “electric mules,” and other haulage equipment. Strip mining began in 1866 near Danville, Illinois, when horse-drawn plows and scrapers were used to remove overburden so the coal could be dug and hauled away in wheelbarrows and carts. In 1877, a steam-powered shovel excavated some 10 feet of overburden from a 3foot-thick coalbed near Pittsburg, Kansas. In 1885, a converted wooden dredge with a 50-foot boom was used to uncover a coalbed under 35 feet of overburden. In 1910, surface mining was underway with steam shovels specifically designed for coal mining.

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

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Young workers, mules, open-flame lamps, and soft hats were common in early coal mines.

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

United States Coal: An Overview
Introduction
The history of America’s progress is inextricably linked to the use of coal from its abundant coal resources. In the early 1900’s, coal was so widely used that it reigned as the Nation’s principal source of energy. Coal fueled industries, powered locomotives, and heated homes. The coal industry provided jobs for workers numbering in the hundreds of thousands and was the foundation of the economy in many areas. Later, the Nation’s use of coal slumped because of competition from other energy sources, chiefly oil and natural gas, which are cleaner and easier to use. The coal industry lost the railroads as consumers of coal, nearly all of the home heating market, and many of the smaller industries. Some predictions made after World War II saw the development of atomic power as leading to the demise of the coal industry. However, history has shown that coal has weathered competition from other energy sources, although the coal mining workforce has decreased dramatically because of extensive mechanization of mine operations. The traumatic Arab oil embargo of the early 1970’s underscored the Nation’s precarious dependence on foreign oil and renewed interest in the vast, widely distributed domestic coal deposits. Clean air legislation, ushered in around the same time, shifted coal development to the large, easily mined deposits of low-sulfur coal in the West. Since then, the market for coal has improved almost steadily, and the production and use of coal have reached unprecedented levels. Today, however, coal is used mostly to generate electricity and accounts for about half of the electricity generated annually. So, through its role in generating electricity, coal has indirectly recaptured part of the market it lost years ago. The coal industry has become the Nation’s largest energy-producing industry, representing nearly onethird of U.S. energy production. Coal also accounts for almost one-fourth of total energy consumed and is the only energy source for which exports are greater than
1

imports. The coal industry is the Nation’s leading mining industry, based on value of production. Of all mineral commodities mined, the quantity of coal currently produced ranks second only to that of crushed stone. The importance of the coal industry to the U.S. economy is illustrated by a study made at Pennsylvania State University in 1994 for the National Coal Association. Analyzing the coal industry’s economic effects in 1992, the study found that, while the direct contribution of coal production that year was valued at $21 billion, the industry’s total contribution to the economy was $132 billion through its impact on other business sectors. Similarly, the coal industry’s workforce of about 136,000 persons, including non-production employees, was indirectly responsible for another 1.4 million jobs. In 1993, the Nation consumed more than 2 million tons1 of coal per day—about 20 pounds for each person every day. To produce the 1993 coal output, valued at about $19 billion, more than 100,000 miners worked in some 2,500 mines. Although the coal produced was largely for domestic use, a significant amount was shipped to other countries. These coal exports, averaging more than $4 billion in value in recent years, help the Nation’s balance of trade. The Nation has always had a trade surplus in coal. Internationally, the United States is prominent as both a producer and exporter of coal. The magnitude of annual U.S. coal output—currently about 1 billion tons—is difficult to grasp unless it is placed in some familiar perspective. One ton of broken coal occupies about 40 cubic feet, so the 1993 coal output would cover 1 square mile to a height of more than one-fourth of a mile. In other terms, the rate of coal production in 1993 averaged around 30 tons per second, enough to fill a railroad car every 3 seconds. About 58 billion tons of coal have been produced in the United States since the first commercial mine was opened more than 200 years ago. Even so, U.S. coal deposits still contain more than 200 billion tons of minable coal, a reserve of energy that contributes to the

In this report, “tons” refers to short tons (1 short ton = 2,000 pounds).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

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Nation’s security. Furthermore, the coal deposits in some States have also become significant sources of coalbed methane. Once considered only as a danger to miners, coalbed methane is now being produced and added to the supply of natural gas. Coal Data: A Reference provides an overview of the many facets of coal mentioned in this section. It spans a range of topics, covering coal deposits, reserves, mining, employment, transportation, use, and environmental issues. Its principal aim is to summarize basic trends, highlighting factors that have influenced the use of coal and, therefore, controlled the rate of coal production. Also included is a review of new technologies being developed to increase the usefulness of coal as a natural resource, making it both a cleanerburning fuel and a source of chemicals.

and chemical analysis of organic matter. The rank of coal can also be determined by measuring the intensity of light reflected from its vitrinite, one of the macerals in coal. Macerals are the combustible organic portions derived from plant substances and comprise three microscopic groups: vitrinite, exinite (or liptinite), and inertinite. The reflectivity of vitrinite increases with coal rank. Macerals are also helpful in identifying and correlating different coals and in predicting the coking properties of coal and coal blends.

The Nature of Coal
Coal, sometimes called “Nature’s Black Diamond,” is a black or brownish-black, combustible, sedimentary organic rock that contains more than 50 percent carbonaceous material by weight. In popular usage, coal is often called a mineral because it was formed in the earth. However, the scientific use of the term “mineral” is reserved for a naturally occurring inorganic material that has a definite chemical composition and a regular internal structure. Coal is of organic origin and has neither of these. Compared with other rocks, coal is relatively light, a solid piece weighing about 80 pounds per cubic foot, less than half the weight of granite, limestone, or most other rocks. Coal is also a relatively soft rock, more easily excavated than most other mined material. Coal is called a fossil fuel because it is derived from plants that grew in vast swamps millions of years ago and were later buried by sediments when the land subsided. Geological and chemical processes involving high pressures and temperatures, working over vast periods of time, compressed and altered the plant remains, increasing the percentage of carbon present, and thus producing the different ranks, or varieties, of coal: lignite, subbituminous, bituminous, and anthracite. Of the various coal ranks in the United States, bituminous coal is the most abundant and widespread. The water-saturated plant debris called peat is not considered a rank of coal, although it is the first stage in the alteration of plants to coal. With increasing rank, or degree of coalification, coal becomes harder and brighter, and its heat value rises. Coal rank is commonly determined by a combination of heat value
4

Fossil plant material is revealed in this photomicrograph of subbituminous coal from Wyoming’s Powder River Basin. As an indication of magnification, the longer side of the photo represents 0.25 millimeters.

Coal occurs in beds, sometimes called “seams” or “veins,” that are interlayed between beds of sandstone, shale, and limestone. The thin layers of shale (“partings”) sometimes found in a coalbed are mineral sediments that settled from muddy flood waters while the vegetable matter was accumulating. Coalbeds range

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

in thickness from less than an inch to more than 100 feet. According to some estimates, an accumulation of 3 to 10 feet of compacted material was needed for each foot of bituminous coal. Based on estimates that hundreds of years were needed to build up enough plant material to make a foot of bituminous coal, thick coalbeds represent accumulations of plant material spanning many thousands of years. Although generally flat lying, coalbeds are sometimes inclined, folded, or faulted as a result of geologic forces. Coal is a complex material, its chemical structure still not completely understood. It is composed chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with smaller amounts of sulfur and nitrogen and variable quantities of trace elements ranging from aluminum to zirconium. All but 16 of the 92 naturally occurring elements have been detected in coal, mostly as trace elements below 0.1 percent (1,000 parts per million, or ppm). Coals of the same rank may appear similar, but their compositions can vary widely, not only from deposit to deposit but also within the same coalbed, because of differences in the environment of the coal swamps and the nature of the original plant debris. The elements found in coal were introduced into the coalbed in one or more different ways: as material washed into the coal swamp, as a biochemical precipitate from the swamp water, as a minor constituent of the original plants, or as a later addition, after the coal was formed, primarily by ground water. Fossil plant debris gives coal its most obvious and most useful characteristic, namely, that it can be burned. The heat energy of coal ranges from an average of 13 million British thermal units (Btu) per ton for lignite to about 30 million Btu per ton for some bituminous coals (Figure 1). Most of the heat produced from coal is generated from carbon, by far its major component, with the amount present typically more than 70 percent. Although hydrogen generates about four times more heat per pound than carbon, it accounts for a small part of coal (generally less than 5 percent) and not all of this element is available for heat. During combustion, part of it combines with oxygen to form water vapor. The higher the oxygen content of coal, the lower its heating value. This inverse relationship occurs because the oxygen in the coal is bound to the carbon and has, therefore, already partially oxidized the carbon, decreasing its ability to generate heat. The amount of heat from the combustion of sulfur in coal is very small. Because coal has a high ratio of carbon to hydrogen, the burning of coal releases more carbon dioxide per unit of heat than does the burning of oil or natural gas.

Figure 1. Approximate Heat Content of Different Coal Ranks1

1 As received. (Includes natural moisture and combustible and incombustible materials.)

The heat content, or Btu value, of coal is approximately related to its rank, except for anthracite.

Although the quantity of coal produced and consumed is commonly measured in tons, the heating value of a ton of coal varies considerably, reflecting differences by rank as well as variations within rank due to the kinds of plant material from which the coal was formed. For instance, the heating value of bituminous coal delivered to electric utilities in 1993 averaged 24 million Btu per ton, but the range was from 20 million to 27 million Btu per ton. Similarly, the heating value for subbituminous coal averaged 18 million Btu per ton, but it ranged from 16 million to 19 million Btu per ton. Lignite’s average heating value of 13 million Btu per ton was based on a range of 12 million to 14 million Btu per ton. Anthracite production averaged about 23 million Btu per ton. Using these averages, 1.3 tons of subbituminous coal, 1.8 tons of lignite, or a little more than 1 ton of anthracite would be needed to produce the amount of heat in 1 ton of bituminous coal. For this reason, coal purchases are often priced in terms of “dollars per million Btu” in addition to “dollars per ton.”

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

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Because the annual “mix” in the ranks of coal comprising total coal production includes growing shares of low rank coals, which generate relatively less heat, the average heat content of U.S. coal production is declining. Currently, it is about 22 million Btu per ton. This is approximately equivalent to the energy obtained by burning 21,000 cubic feet of natural gas, 160 gallons of distillate fuel oil, or 1 cord of seasoned hardwood. Among the various elements in coal, sulfur is the most undesirable. Burning converts the sulfur in coal mostly into sulfur dioxide, an air pollutant as well as the cause of corrosion and deposits in boilers. Sulfur in mine wastes inhibits the growth of vegetation and causes stream pollution. Sulfur in coking coal used by the steel industry lowers the quality of both the coke produced and the resulting iron and steel products; consequently, coal with a low sulfur content is required for making coke. Various laws have been enacted to limit the amount of sulfur released to the environment. The sulfur content (by weight) of the coal produced for electric power plants, the largest market, in recent years ranged from less than 1 percent to about 4 percent, and averaged 1 percent (20 pounds per ton). Sulfur occurs in coal in three forms: (1) iron sulfides (pyrite and marcasite), (2) secondary sulfates (gypsum and hydrous ferrous sulfate), and (3) organic sulfur chemically bonded to the coal-forming plant material. Most of the iron sulfides occur in the form of pyrite, which is distributed in many ways: as lenses, bands, fractures, and nodules, and as finely disseminated particles. The larger particles can be partly removed by conventional cleaning processes, but the fine particles are difficult to remove unless the coal is finely crushed and the pyrite separated by special treatment. Sulfate sulfur is less easily removed; however, it is normally present in small amounts (generally less than 0.05 percent) and usually of no great concern. Organic sulfur predominates in low-sulfur coal. As the total sulfur content of coal increases, the amount of organic sulfur can rise to more than 1 percent. Organic sulfur cannot be removed by conventional coal-cleaning processes. High-sulfur coal is a product of swamps that were covered by sea water. Bacteria in the swamp converted the sulfate in the sea water into pyrite that became part of the coal. Low-sulfur coal deposits were developed primarily under fresh-water conditions. Although the subbituminous coals and lignites mined in the West contain much lower levels of sulfur than do typical bituminous coals, they contain fairly high levels

of the alkali metals sodium and potassium. These elements, which generally are chemically bound to the organic coal matrix, affect the physical and chemical properties of the coal ash. Boilers using these coals are specially designed to avoid serious ash-related equipment malfunctions. Minerals are the incombustible matter in coal that becomes ash after burning. Minerals represent the inorganic parts of coal and include clay (the most abundant inorganic constituent), carbonates, sulfides, and quartz. The ash content of coal produced for electric power plants in recent years ranged from about 5 to 19 percent (by weight) and averaged about 10 percent (about 200 pounds per ton). Ash not only poses significant disposal problems, but it can form incombustible residues in furnaces, causing combustion problems and erosion of boiler components. Some ash is used in land fills and in making concrete and cinder blocks. Methane in coal is the result of the chemical and physical processes involved in coal formation. The methane is contained within the structure of the coal and in fractures in the coalbed. Higher rank coals such as bituminous coal generally contain more methane than low ranks such as lignite. Because coal formed under high pressure is apt to contain more methane than otherwise, the methane content of coalbeds increases with depth.

U.S. Coal Deposits
The United States contains some of the world’s largest coal deposits. Coal is present in 38 States and underlies a total of 458,600 square miles or 13 percent of the land area of the United States (Figure 2). The U.S. Geological Survey has identified more than 400 fields and small deposits of coal in the United States. They were formed during periods of Earth’s history when the face and climate of what is now North America were markedly different than they are today. The coal deposits in the East date back mainly to the Pennsylvanian period of the Earth’s geologic history, approximately 300 million years ago, long before the age of dinosaurs. By contrast, most of the coal in the West is geologically younger, formed less than 140 million years ago in the Cretaceous period, when dinosaurs were alive, and in the subsequent Tertiary period, when they became extinct. Coal in the East generally occurs in beds that tend to be less than 15 feet thick. Geological conditions in the East prevented the coal-forming material from building up; instead, they led to the formation of numerous coalbeds

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Figure 2. U.S. Coal Deposits

Wind River Region

North Central Region

Fort Powder River Union Basin Region Bighorn Basin

Denver Basin

Western Interior Region Illinois Basin

CentraliaChehalis Field

WA ND MT SD

Michigan Basin Pennsylvania Anthracite Region

ME

NY

VT NH MA

Green River Region

OR CA NV

MN ID UT WY CO KS KY TX OK MO AR TN AL GA SC NC WV VA NE IA WI IL MI IN OH PA

RI CT NJ DE MD

Uinta Region

Appalachian Region

Black Mesa Field Northern Alaska Fields Healy-Nenana Fields

AZ

NM MS LA
San Juan Basin

Warrior Field

FL

AK
Raton Mesa Southwestern Interior Region Gulf Coast Region

Matanuska Valley Fields

RANK Anthracite1 Bituminous Coal Subbituminous Coal
Kenai Field

DEPOSIT

Lignite
Note: Alaska not to scale of conterminous United States. Small fields and isolated occurrences are not shown. 1 Principal anthracite deposits are in Pennsylvania. Small deposits occur in Alaska, Arkansas, Colorado, Massachusetts-Rhode Island, New Mexico, Utah, Virginia, Washington, and West Virginia.

Coal is found in 38 States, underlying 458,600 square miles, about 13 percent of the total land area.

Sources: U.S. Geological Survey, Coalfields of the United States, 1960-61 and Coal Map of North America, 1988; Texas Bureau of Economic Geology, Lignite Resources in Texas, 1980; and Louisiana Geological Survey, Near Surface Lignite in Louisiana, 1961.

located between other strata in repetitive sequences. By comparison, thicker coalbeds are common in the West, particularly in Wyoming, where geological conditions enabled large amounts of vegetation to accumulate. Although about 300 coalbeds were mined across the United States in 1993, nearly half of the coal produced was from only 10 beds (Table 1). The average thickness of all coalbeds mined ranged widely, from less than 2 feet to about 65 feet (Figure 3). Individual coalbeds commonly cover large geographic areas. For instance, the heavily mined Pittsburgh coalbed underlies parts of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio, and Maryland; the

Wyodak coalbed, the Nation’s leading source of coal, is estimated to cover at least 10,000 square miles in the Powder River Basin of Wyoming and Montana, according to the Wyoming State Geological Survey. The most important coal deposits in the East are in the Appalachian Region, an area encompassing more than 72,000 square miles and parts of nine States. The region contains the Nation’s principal deposits of anthracite (in northeastern Pennsylvania) and large deposits of lowand medium-volatile bituminous coal. Historically, the Appalachian Region has been the major source of U.S.

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

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Table 1. U.S. Coal Production from the 10 Leading Coalbeds, 1993 (Million Short Tons)
State with Largest Production by Coalbed WY WV KY(W) KY(E) IL ND KY(E) WV KY(E) MT ---

Coalbed Namea Wyodak . . . . . . Pittsburgh . . . . . No. 9 . . . . . . . . Hazard No. 5-A No 6. . . . . . . . . Beulah-Zap . . . Hazard No. 4. . . Lower Kittanning Lower Elkhorn . Rosebud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Production 185.7 49.4 34.8 32.4 30.7 27.7 24.5 22.6 18.0 16.2 442.0 46.8

but their generally high percentage of sulfur and ash hampers their use as a fuel and for coke production. The major sources of bituminous coal are two coalbeds commonly known as No. 6 and No. 9, but also known locally by other names. These beds, which average about 6 feet in thickness, account for a large share of the coal produced in Illinois, Indiana, and western Kentucky. A small area of anthracite is present in Arkansas. In the Gulf Coastal Plain in the southern part of the region are large deposits of lignite that have been used for electricity generation in Texas since the 1970’s and in Louisiana since the 1980’s. The most important lignite beds are in a succession of strata known as the Wilcox Group and are generally 3 to 10 feet thick. The western part of the United States has a number of coal basins that contain all ranks of coal. The largest lignite deposit is in the northern Great Plains, underlying parts of North Dakota, South Dakota, and Montana; most of the lignite produced is from the Beulah-Zap bed in North Dakota. In the nearby Powder River Basin of northeastern Wyoming and southeastern Montana is the Nation’s major source of low-sulfur subbituminous coal, used primarily for electricity generation. The basin has been the fastest growing coalproducing area in the past two decades and today accounts for about half of the coal mined in the West. The Powder River Basin contains the Wyodak coalbed, which is the leading source of U.S. coal production and one of the thickest coalbeds, averaging 70 feet and exceeding 100 feet in places. The principal deposits of bituminous coal mined in the West are in Utah, Colorado, and Arizona. Alaska has deposits of all coal ranks, but currently the only production is subbituminous coal from the Nenana field, north of Anchorage.

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of U.S. Total . . . .

a Name most commonly used. -- = Not applicable. Note: Total does not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

coal, accounting for about three-fourths of the total annual production as recently as 1970. Although the region’s output currently is less than half of the national total because of increased coal production in the West, it continues to be the principal source of bituminous coal (including coking coal) and anthracite. The number of coalbeds mined in the Appalachian Region reaches more than 60 in West Virginia, with the bed thickness generally ranging from 3 to 8 feet. In the northern part of the region is the Pittsburgh coalbed, an important source of coal during the development of the U.S. iron and steel industry. For many years the Pittsburgh coalbed was the leading source of coal, but it now ranks second to the Wyodak coalbed in Wyoming. The intensely folded and faulted anthracite fields of northeastern Pennsylvania once supplied a large amount of coal for domestic heating, a major part of it from a series of beds comprising the Mammoth coal zone. Two important sources of bituminous coal in the southern part of the Appalachian Region are Alabama’s Blue Creek and Mary Lee coalbeds. In contrast with the concentration of coal in Appalachia, the coal deposits in the interior region of the United States occur in several separate basins located from Michigan to Texas. The northern part of the region contains large deposits of high-volatile bituminous coal,
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Resources and Reserves
Coal is by far the Nation’s most abundant fossil fuel, with the total resources of both identified and undiscovered coal estimated at nearly 4 trillion tons. The quantity of coal considered technically and commercially minable constitutes a demonstrated reserve base currently estimated at more than 400 billion short tons. About half of the tonnage is bituminous coal (Figure 4), concentrated in Appalachia and the Interior Region; around 38 percent is subbituminous coal in the West, about 9 percent is lignite, located mostly in the West and the Interior Region; and 1 percent is Pennsylvania anthracite. Underground mining is required for about two-thirds of the reserve base; the rest can be surface mined. The largest reserves of low-sulfur coal are in the West. By contrast, the coal reserves with the highest heat content are mostly in the East.

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Figure 3. Average Thickness of U.S. Coalbeds Mined, by State, in 1993 (Weighted Average in Feet)
65
Wyoming Utah

10

60 55
New Mexico

9

8

50 45 40
Montana

7
Maryland Louisiana Illinois West Virginia Kentucky (West) Pennsylvania Bituminous Kentucky (East) Virginia, Indiana Ohio, Alabama Missouri Arkansas Tennessee, Iowa

6

35
Feet

30 25 20 15 10 5 0
Colorado Alaska Washington Pennsylvania Anthracite North Dakota Texas Arizona

4

3

Oklahoma

2

Kansas

1

0

The thickest coalbeds mined in the United States are in the West. The average thickness of all coalbeds mined in 1993 was about 22 feet.

Source: Energy Information Administration, EIA-7A, “Coal Production Report.”

The amount of coal that can actually be recovered from the reserve base varies from area to area and ranges from 40 percent at some underground mines to more than 90 percent at some surface mines. The recovery rate is lower for underground mining because some coal must be left untouched to form supporting pillars to prevent the mine from collapsing and the surface from subsiding. At both underground and surface mines, geologic features such as folded, faulted, and interlayered rock strata can reduce the amount of coal that can be recovered. In some areas, coal deposits underlie towns and cities and consequently may not be mined. Other factors that limit mining include environmental and legal restrictions, economic constraints, lack of suitable technology for using low-quality coal, and the fact that many of the highest quality and most accessible coal deposits have already been mined. Nevertheless, for the Nation as a whole, at least half of

the reserve base—about 265 billion tons—is estimated to be recoverable. U.S. recoverable coal reserves are estimated to be the second largest in the world, slightly below those in the former Soviet Union. Based on coal quality, as measured in pounds of sulfur emitted per million Btu, U.S. recoverable coal reserves include an estimated 100 billion tons of low-sulfur coal (0.60 pounds or less of sulfur per million Btu), with 87 percent of this in the West. Medium-sulfur recoverable coal reserves (0.61-1.67 pounds of sulfur per million Btu) are estimated at 84 billion tons, of which 62 percent is in the West and 24 percent in Appalachia. High-sulfur recoverable coal reserves (more than 1.67 pounds of sulfur per million Btu) total 80 billion tons, and are mostly in the interior region (60 percent) and Appalachia (28 percent).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Feet

5

9

Figure 4. U.S. Demonstrated Reserve Base of Coal, January 1, 1993 (Billion Short Tons)
Total= 474 Anthracite (7)

comprises an estimated 90 trillion cubic feet in the lower 48 States and 57 trillion cubic feet in Alaska.

Mining
Once a coal deposit has been selected for mining, some 4 to 7 years of planning and development are needed before production begins. Apart from the market for coal, the questions that must be addressed include land ownership, mineral rights, the quality and quantity of the available coal, and the method of mining and transporting the coal. The mining method used depends on the depth of the coalbed from the surface and the character of the terrain (Figure 5). Coalbeds deeper than 200 feet are usually mined by underground methods. Those that are at shallower depths are worked by surface methods.

100 90 80

242

Bituminous Coal

70 60

50 40

180

Subbituminous Coal

30 20

10 45 0 Lignite

Although most underground mines are less than 1,000 feet deep, several reach depths of about 2,000 feet. Underground mines are classified according to the type of opening, or entry, used to reach the coalbed; some mines have several different openings. A drift mine is one that has a horizontal entry to a coalbed in a hillside. In a slope mine, the entry is inclined from the surface to the coalbed. A shaft mine, equipped with elevators, provides vertical access to a coalbed generally deeper than one reached by a slope mine. In addition to the passages providing entry to the coalbed, a network of other passages are also dug to provide access to various parts of the mine and for ventilation. When the coalbed is reached, it is sectioned into panels, or blocks, several hundred feet wide and several thousand feet long (Figure 6). The actual mining of these blocks is accomplished by three techniques: roomand-pillar, longwall, and shortwall. Sometimes several techniques are used at the same time in different sections of a mine. Most underground coal is mined by the room-and-pillar system (Figure 7). With this system, the miners extract the coal by cutting a series of rooms into the coalbed and leaving pillars, or columns of coal, to help support the mine roof. As mining advances, a grid-like pattern is formed in the panel of coal, which is about 400 feet wide and more than half a mile long. Generally, the rooms are 20 to 30 feet wide and the pillars 20 to 90 feet wide; the height usually is the same as the coalbed thickness. When mining reaches the end of the panel, the direction of mining usually is reversed. During this “retreat” phase of mining, the miners recover as much coal as possible from the pillars in a

The reserve base is comprised chiefly of two ranks of coalbituminous and subbituminous.
Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Production 1992, DOE/EIA-0118(92) (October 1993).

The recoverable coal reserves reported at active mines in 1993 totaled nearly 22 billion tons. About 15 billion tons were at surface mines, mostly in the Western Region. Of the 7 billion tons in underground mines, nearly two-thirds were in Appalachia. Another energy source from coal is methane, a gas formed by the decomposition of the organic matter in coal. Coalbed methane is recovered in some States (for example, Alabama, New Mexico, and Wyoming) and added to the supply of natural gas, which is composed chiefly of methane. Proved reserves of coalbed methane total 10 trillion cubic feet, located mostly in the San Juan Basin of Colorado and New Mexico. The recoverable resource base for coalbed methane currently
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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Figure 5. Coal Mining Methods

The method of mining a coal deposit depends on the depth of the coalbed and the nature of the terrain.

systematic manner until the roof caves in. When this phase of mining is completed, the area is abandoned. Although the goal is to extract all of the coal in the panel, this is not always possible because of natural restraints, such as poor mine roof and floor conditions. Furthermore, pillars are usually left to prevent subsidence of the land surface above the mine. Pillars that are not mined include those along property lines, around shaft bottoms or portals, and around oil and gas wells that penetrate the coalbed. Generally, 50 to 60 percent of the minable coal is recovered with roomand-pillar mining. Two basic variations are used in room-and-pillar mining: (1) conventional mining, the oldest, which consists of a series of operations that involve cutting the coalbed so it breaks easily when blasted and then loading the broken coal; and (2) continuous mining,

which uses a machine called a continuous miner that combines cutting, drilling, and loading coal in one operation and requires no blasting. Because of the steps involved, conventional mining requires a larger crew at the coal face—for example, 10 miners as compared with 6 for continuous mining. Generally, mining advances into the coalbed in steps of about 10 feet for conventional mining and about twice that in continuous mining. Since the 1950’s, continuous mining has increased and now accounts for 56 percent of the coal output from underground mines, whereas the share from conventional mining has fallen to about 12 percent. Regardless of the mining variation used, roomand-pillar mining usually is not suitable for coalbeds at depths greater than about 1,000 feet. As depth increases, larger pillars are needed to support the overlying strata and less coal can be produced.

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

11

Figure 6. Underground Mining Systems

Room-and-pillar mining is the most common way to mine coal undergound. Longwall mining is used to mine large blocks of coal where the bed is relatively flat and thick. A continuous mining operation includes roof bolting equipment and can use a coal-loading machine and shuttle cars (not shown) instead of a conveyor belt.
12 Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Figure 7. Underground Coal Production by Mining Techniques, 1993

Longw all 31%

Continuous 56%
RO OM

Conventional 12% Other* 1%

AN D

N PILLAR M I

IN

G

*

Includes shortwall, scoop loading, and hand loading.

Underground coal is mined mostly with continuous mining machines, which dig and load coal in one operation.
Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

The second technique of underground coal mining is longwall mining, which is gaining importance in the United States and can be used at greater depths than room-and-pillar mining. Nearly one-third of the coal currently produced underground is from about 100 longwall mining operations, most of them in the Appalachian Region. In longwall mining, a cutting machine operates back and forth across a panel of coal averaging about 800 feet in width and 7,000 in length, with the broken coal removed from the coal face by an armored flexible conveyor. Two types of cutting devices are used, shearers and plows. The shearer, by far the more widely used, has a large drum-shaped cutting head that strips 20 to 36 inches from the coal face on each pass. It rides on a special track on the armored flexible conveyor. A plow is a much simpler machine that is blade-like and fitted with bits or a saw-tooth edge that cuts the coal face into slices up to 6 inches deep as the plow is pulled across the coal face. Longwall mining is done under movable hydraulic roof supports, or shields, that are advanced as the bed is cut; the roof in the mined-out area is allowed to fall as mining advances, forming an area of broken rock called “gob.”

The widely used continuous mining machine excavates coal through the use of cutting heads, while the broken coal is gathered by loading arms.

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

13

In longwall mining, a shearing machine excavates coal as it moves back and forth across a coal face hundreds of feet long.

Production of coal per shift from longwall mining generally is higher than that of either conventional or continuous mining. The longwall technique often has a better recovery rate. It is also safer because the working area is protected by overhead steel supports, coal haulage is simplified, and ventilation is better controlled. However, longwall mining has certain limitations. It is generally not suitable if the coalbed thickness varies widely or if the coalbed is broken by geologic faults. The mine roof or floor also must be strong enough to provide a solid surface for the supports, and the mine roof must cave evenly and not “hang up.” Also constraining are high capital costs for equipment and mine development. The third technique of underground mining is shortwall mining, used in a few mines. Shortwall mining involves the use of a continuous mining machine and

movable roof supports to shear coal panels 150 to 200 feet wide and more than half a mile long. Although similar to longwall mining, shortwall mining is generally more flexible because of the smaller working area. Productivity is lower than with longwall mining because the coal is hauled by shuttle cars rather than by conveyor. All underground coal mining is a complex undertaking requiring the miners to use not only special machinery to cut and remove coal, but also special techniques such as roof bolting to prevent the mine roof from collapsing. A number of safety procedures must be followed to comply with Federal and State health and safety regulations. Entries, or passage ways, consist of at least three parallel entries, so that if one is accidentally blocked, the others afford a means of escape. Multiple entries also provide adequate ventilation

14

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

to carry away methane, other gases, and coal dust, with brattices and other stoppings used to direct the flow of air; they also are used to drain water from the mine. Areas where underground mining has occurred are subject to subsidence when the mine roof collapses. Subsidence can affect buildings and other structures, and can also have hydrologic impacts, disrupting the flow of water on the surface and underground. Subsidence from longwall mining is generally more uniform and more predictable because it usually begins as coal extraction progresses. By contrast, subsidence due to room-and-pillar mining is difficult to predict because the supporting pillars deteriorate at some later time. The amount of subsidence from both types of mining depend on such factors as the depth of mining, the thickness of the coalbed extracted, and the thickness and strength of the overlying rock. A coalbed can be surface mined when it is less than 200 feet deep. Surface mining, also called strip mining, is the least expensive mining method, and sometimes it is the only safe and efficient way of mining coal at

shallow depths. Surface mining is also less restrictive than underground mining, because equipment can be easily moved, although heavy equipment requires stable ground. Coal-recovery rates at surface mines can exceed 90 percent. Surface mining is essentially large-scale earthmoving that consists of excavating the overburden from the coalbed and then removing the coal. At some surface mines, mainly those in Appalachia, two or more coalbeds are mined during the same mining operation. The amount of overburden, or spoil, excavated per ton of coal recovered, called the overburden ratio, ranges from 1 to more than 30 cubic yards. The lower the overburden ratio, the more productive the mine. The lowest overburden ratios are generally in the West. Area surface mining is practiced on flat ground and consists of a series of cuts 100 to 200 feet wide, with the overburden from one cut used to fill the mined-out area of the preceding cut (Figure 8). By comparison, contour surface mining follows a coalbed along hillsides. When contour mining becomes uneconomical, additional coal can be produced from the mine’s highwall

Figure 8. Area Surface Mining with Dragline and Shovel

In area mining, long strips are excavated to uncover the coal. The overburden from the strip being mined is deposited in the strip previously mined.
Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 15

Thick coalbeds that can be easily surface mined, such as this one in Wyoming, enable a mine to achieve a high rate of productivity.

by the use of augers to drill 100 feet or more into the bed, or by opening a small drift mine called a punch mine. Open-pit mining is used where thick coalbeds are steeply inclined, as in southwestern Wyoming and the anthracite area of Pennsylvania. An open-pit mine, which combines the techniques of contour mining and area mining, can reach depths of several hundred feet. The equipment used at surface mines includes dragline excavators, power shovels, hydraulic shovels, bulldozers, front-end loaders, and bucketwheel excavators. Draglines remove overburden while power shovels and hydraulic shovels load coal. However, bulldozers and front-end loaders are often used to remove overburden in small mines; front-end loaders can also load coal. The few bucketwheel excavators in use operate in flat areas with soft overburden, such as in parts of the Midwest and Texas. Continuous surface mining machines equipped with rotating cutting heads and conveyors are used in some lignite mines. In the anthracite area of Pennsylvania, surface mining includes the mining of culm and silt banks—waste accumulations of coal and rock from earlier mining operations that are now being used as fuel. Another form of surface mining in parts of Appalachia is dredging, which recovers coal that was dumped into

rivers from early preparation plants or eroded from coal stockpiles or coalbeds beneath the rivers. Because surface mining disturbs the land and can produce unsightly areas, surface mine operators are required to reclaim mined land by restoring natural vegetation and drainage. Properly reclaimed mining areas can be restored to a variety of uses, such as farmland, wildlife areas, or parkland.

Production
Coal has been mined commercially in the United States for more than 200 years, beginning in 1748 near Richmond, Virginia. Westward expansion across the country stimulated local demands for coal, so that by the beginning of the 20th century coal was being produced in most of the Nation’s coalfields. The historical record of coal production reflects a record of industrial progress, competition from other fuels, coal miners’ strikes, economic conditions, wars, environmental regulations, and health and safety laws. Coal was produced in 26 States in 1993, with more than half of the total output (almost 1 billion tons) from

16

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

three States: Wyoming, Kentucky, and West Virginia (Table 2). Although Wyoming was the leader in tonnage produced, Kentucky was the leader based on the energy content of the coal produced and on the value of production. Table 2. The 10 Leading U.S. Coal-Producing States, 1993 (Million Short Tons)
States Wyoming . . . Kentucky . . . West Virginia Pennsylvania Texas . . . . . Illinois . . . . . Virginia . . . . Montana . . . . North Dakota Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production 210.1 156.3 130.5 59.7 54.6 41.1 39.3 35.9 32.0 29.3 788.8 945.4 Percent of Total 22.2 16.5 13.8 6.3 5.8 4.3 4.1 3.8 3.4 3.1 83.4 100.0

easier and cleaner to handle, with low-cost oil imports supplementing the domestic supply, but long-distance pipelines were built to bring natural gas from the Southwest to eastern markets, where its convenience of use cut sharply into the market for coal for home heating and other uses. Coal was also confronted with another rival in the utility market—the development of nuclear generated electricity. Further hampering the use of utility coal was a growth in hydroelectric power. As the market for coal weakened, coal production dropped from more than 500 million tons in the 1950’s to a little more than 400 million tons in the early 1960’s, although it rose from time to time mostly because of increased exports. In the 1970’s, however, coal production once again rose. Following the Arab oil embargo, which disrupted the Figure 9. U.S. Coal Production, 1890-1993
1200

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1000

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

800

About 60 percent of the coal produced was bituminous coal, historically the predominant rank. Most of the balance was subbituminous coal and lignite, both of which have been produced in increasingly larger quantities since 1970 to satisfy the demand for utility coal. The share of total production from subbituminous coal has risen from 4 percent in 1970 to 29 percent in 1993, and that from lignite has risen from less than 2 percent to 9 percent. By contrast, anthracite production, which accounted for less than 1 percent of the 1993 total, has been declining for several decades because of competition from other fuels and difficult mining conditions, which keep the price of anthracite relatively high. Internationally, the 1993 U.S. coal output was estimated to rank second to China among the more than 50 coal-producing countries. Historically, annual coal production, fueling industrial development, reached 200 million tons before 1900 (Figure 9). It then climbed to more than 600 million tons before declining during the Depression years. Production increased during World War II and peaked at nearly 700 million tons in 1947, before trending downward in the postwar years as coal markets were lost to low-cost oil and natural gas. Not only was oil

Million Short Tons

600

400

200

0 1890

1910

1930

1950

1970

1990

Years

The trend of U.S. coal production reflects competition from other energy sources, economic conditions, strikes and wars. The rise since 1960 is due to increased use of coal to generate electricity.
Sources: Energy Information Administration, State Coal Profiles, DOE/EIA-0576 (Washington, DC, January 1994), and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

17

supply of foreign oil and sharply increased oil prices, interest was renewed in the largely unused domestic coal reserves as a way of reducing dependence on foreign oil. In addition, the enactment of clean air standards spurred the opening of large mines in the West to supply low-sulfur coal for electric utilities. As the coal market improved and new mines opened, coal production expanded to record levels, surpassing 800 million tons in 1980 and 1 billion tons in 1990, dropping only slightly since then. In the last two decades, the coal output from many States reached an all-time high (Table 3). The upward trend for coal production, Table 3. Peak Year of U.S. Coal Production by State, Through 1993 (Thousand Short Tons)
State Alabama . . . . Alaska . . . . . . Arizona . . . . . Arkansas . . . . California . . . . Colorado . . . . Georgia . . . . . Illinois . . . . . . Indiana . . . . . . Iowa . . . . . . . Kansas . . . . . Kentucky . . . . Louisiana . . . . Maryland . . . . Michigan . . . . Missouri . . . . . Montana . . . . . New Mexico . . North Carolina North Dakota . Ohio . . . . . . . Oklahoma . . . Oregon . . . . . Pennsylvania . Anthracite . . Bituminous . South Dakota . Tennessee . . . Texas . . . . . . Utah . . . . . . . Virginia . . . . . Washington . . West Virginia . Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Year 1990 1988 1991 1907 1880 1993 1903 1918 1984 1917 1918 1990 1992 1907 1907 1984 1992 1993 1922 1993 1970 1978 1904 1918 1917 1918 1941 1972 1990 1990 1990 1992 1947 1993 1990 Production 29,030 1,745 13,203 2,670 237 21,886 417 89,291 37,555 8,966 7,562 173,322 3,240 5,533 2,036 6,733 38,889 28,268 79 31,973 55,351 6,070 112 277,377 99,612 178,551 71 11,260 55,755 22,058 46,917 5,251 176,157 210,129 1,029,076

despite several coal miners’ strikes, was in notable contrast with the generally declining production trends (based on total Btu content) for domestic crude oil and natural gas. Cumulative U.S. coal production from 1890 through 1993 is about 58 billion tons (Table 4). Table 4. Cumulative Coal Production by State, 1890-1993 (Billion Short Tons)
States Pennsylvania West Virginia Kentucky . . . Illinois . . . . . Ohio . . . . . . Wyoming . . . Indiana . . . . . Virginia . . . . Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production
a

Percent of Total 26.3 18.5 12.2 9.6 6.0 5.0 3.6 3.5 3.2 12.2 100.0

15.3 10.8 7.1 5.6 3.5 2.9 2.1 2.0 1.9 7.1 58.1

Other States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a

Includes 10.7 billion short tons of bituminous coal and 4.6 billion short tons of anthracite. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, and Energy Information Administration, Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

The high level of coal production was accompanied by shifts in both the geographic distribution of coal production and in the share of coal produced by surface mining. In 1970, most of the coal was mined east of the Mississippi River, principally from the Appalachian Region. By 1993, however, the share of production from eastern coal mines was only about 55 percent, while the rest was from western mines. Equally significant, surface mines gained a larger proportion of production, about 60 percent in 1993 as opposed to 44 percent in 1970, most of it in the West. The major share of the additional coal production has been from leases on federally administered lands, principally Federal lands but also Indian lands. Coal production from Federal leases—the fastest-growing segment of U.S. coal production—has risen from 7 million tons in 1970, when it accounted for about 1 percent of the U.S. total, to 258 million tons in 1993, when it comprised 30 percent, due chiefly to highly productive leases in Wyoming. During the same period, the coal output from leases on Indian lands increased from 5 million to 28 million tons. Indian coal leases

U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sources: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook, various issues, and Energy Information Administration, Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

18

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Wyoming’s Black Thunder surface mine, shown here, is the Nation’s largest coal mine. Its 1993 output of 34 million short tons was more than the entire production of many States.

leases are on the tribal lands of the Navajo and Hopi in Arizona, the Navajo in New Mexico, and the Crow in Montana. They are administered by the U.S. Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Indian Affairs. Coal sales from Federal coal leases generate substantial royalties ($265 million in 1993) that are distributed to the U.S. Department of the Treasury and to the States in which the leases are located. Royalties from Indian coal sales ($65 million) are disbursed to the tribal governments and Indian allotment owners. The large amount of coal currently produced is from fewer but larger mines than in the past. The 1993 coal output, for example, was from about 2,500 mines, whereas in 1970 about 6,000 mines produced 40 percent less coal. The greater output from today’s coal mines is due to advances in mechanization that brought continuous mining machines and longwall mining systems to underground mines and large-capacity power shovels, draglines, and coal-hauling equipment to surface mines. In 1970, mines with an annual output of more than 500,000 tons represented about 5 percent of the total number of mines and accounted for almost 60 percent of total coal production. By comparison, in 1993 this category of mines represented 14 percent of the total number, but supplied more than three-fourths of a considerably larger output. In addition, nearly 200 mines in 1993 produced at a level of 1 million tons or

more, together accounting for two-thirds of the total coal mined. Of the 10 leading U.S. coal mines in 1993, 8 were surface mines in Wyoming. The largest surface coal mine was the Black Thunder, which was operated by ARCO Coal Company in Wyoming’s Powder River Basin; it produced 34 million tons—more coal than was mined in 18 States. The largest underground coal production, 7 million tons, was from the Enlow Fork Mine of Consol Energy, Inc., in Pennsylvania. Paralleling the trend of increasing mine size, coalproducing companies have also become larger. This has occurred because the mechanization of mines requires larger capital investments. Some small coal companies, lacking the financial resources to continue independently, have merged with other coal companies; however, many small mining companies have closed. In addition, some large coal consumers, such as electric utilities, have acquired interests in coal mining companies in order to secure long-term coal supplies. Some petroleum companies have expanded their interest in energy by acquiring shares in coal-producing companies. Because the bigger coal companies generally operate a number of large mines, often in different States, they have gained a greater share of total production. In the mid-1950’s, for example, the 10 largest coal companies

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

19

produced about one-third of the Nation’s coal output. In 1993, with production at a much greater level, the top 10 coal companies accounted for more than 40 percent of the output (Table 5). Although foreign companies have interests in U.S. companies, the coal industry is predominantly controlled by domestic companies. Currently the top three coal-producing companies are the Peabody Holding Company, which is controlled by Hanson PLC, a British firm; Cyprus Minerals, a U.S. company; and Consolidation Coal Company, which is affiliated with Du Pont/Rheinbraun AG, which represents U.S., Canadian, and German interests. In 1993, these three companies together were responsible for about one-fifth of the total U.S. coal output. Table 5. The 10 Leading U.S. Coal-Producing Companies, 1993 (Million Short Tons)
Percent of Total Production 7.4 6.9 5.4 4.0 4.0 3.9 3.0 2.9 2.8 2.8 43.0 100.0

incombustible material that can be emitted as particulate matter and also contributes to the erosion of boiler components. The average heat value of coal is highest in the East, where virtually all of the coal is bituminous in rank, and relatively low for coal in the West, which has large deposits of subbituminous coal and lignite. Although annual coal production has increased, the total heat content of production has not risen at the same rate because of the greater amounts of low-rank coal mined for electric utilities. For example, in 1970, the average heat value of the 613 million tons of coal produced was 23.8 million Btu per ton, resulting in energy production of 14.6 quadrillion Btu. By comparison, the 1993 production was nearly 1 billion tons, more than 50 percent larger, but the energy value was 20.2 quadrillion Btu, only about 38 percent higher, because the average heat value of the coal declined to 21.4 million Btu per ton. For utility coal, the average heat content dropped from 22.6 million Btu per short ton in 1970 to 20.6 million Btu in 1993, whereas the estimated heat content of coking coal was relatively constant during the period, averaging 26.8 million Btu per short ton annually. Coal consumed by other industrial users declined slightly in heat value, from 23.0 million Btu per short ton in 1970 to 22.2 million Btu in 1993. The small amount of coal used by residential and commercial consumers fluctuated between an estimated 22.2 million and 23.7 million Btu per short ton during the period. The average sulfur content of coal production, based on utility coal production, has been declining because of the larger amounts of low-sulfur coal from the West. Over the 1973-1993 period, the average sulfur content (by weight) of utility coal fell from 2.3 percent to 1.2 percent. Similarly, the average ash content (by weight) of utility coal also decreased over the period, dropping from 13.0 percent to 9.5 percent, due to the greater use of Wyoming utility coal, which has a relatively low ash content. Coal for industrial use in 1993 contained an average of 2.5 percent sulfur and 13.5 percent ash.

Company Peabody Holding Co., Inc. . Cyprus Minerals Co. . . . . . Consol Energy, Inc. . . . . . Zeigler Coal Holding Co. . . ARCO Coal Co. . . . . . . . . Kennecott Energy Co. . . . . Exxon Coal USA Inc. . . . . Texas Utilities Co. . . . . . . . Montana Power Co. . . . . . North American Coal Corp. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Production 69.7 65.3 50.7 37.5 37.4 36.7 28.1 27.6 26.4 26.3 405.6 945.4

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

Quality of Coal Production Coal Prices
If coal were a uniform product, it could be used with fewer problems. However, its composition varies significantly. Although characteristics such as fixed carbon, volatile matter, grindability, ash-fusion temperature, and coking ability have long been important in using and marketing coal, the heat value and the percentage of sulfur and ash, by weight, are of special interest. The heat value indicates how much energy is purchased per dollar. The sulfur content is an environmental concern because sulfur dioxide, a pollutant, is emitted when coal is burned. The ash content represents the
20

In general, coal is the least expensive domestic fossil fuel produced, based on its heat content. Coal is about one-third as expensive as crude oil and nearly half as costly as natural gas. When adjusted for inflation, the average price of coal in 1993 (about $20 per ton) was about 44 percent lower than it was a decade earlier and less than half of the price in the mid 1970’s. The highest price of coal in “real” dollars (adjusted for inflation and expressed in 1987 dollars) was $39 per ton in 1975, which amounted to $19 per short ton in current dollars

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

and was the result of the oil embargo in 1973-74. The embargo caused a sharp rise in oil prices, and coal prices also rose mainly because producers expected a rapid and widespread switch from oil to coal. Coal prices reached $27 per ton in 1982 (real price of $32 per ton) before falling as the price of oil declined and the conversion from oil to coal slowed. The price of coal varies by coal rank, mining method, geographic region, and coal quality. Surface-mined coal is generally lower-priced than underground-mined coal. Where coalbeds are thick and near the surface, as in Wyoming, mining costs and, therefore, coal prices tend to be lower than where the beds are thinner and deeper, as in Appalachia. The higher cost of coal from underground mines reflects the more difficult mining conditions and the need for more miners. Coals with a high heat content are generally higher priced. Lowsulfur coals can command a higher price than highsulfur coals. The average price per ton of coal in 1993 was about $9 for subbituminous coal, $11 for lignite, $26 for bituminous coal, and $33 for anthracite. Transportation costs add significantly to the delivered price of coal. In some cases, as in long-distance shipments of Wyoming coal, transportation costs can be more than the price of coal at the mine. The average delivered price of coal shipped to electric utilities, the major coal consumers, reached highs in the early 1980’s of about $35 per ton (real price of about $39 per ton). Since then, the average delivered price of utility coal has generally declined, dropping in 1993 to about $29 per ton (real price of $24 per ton).

ment and requiring affirmative action plans for businesses receiving Federal contracts, and a 1978 U.S. Department of Labor training program for women who wanted to begin coal-mining careers. The drop in the size of the total coal mining workforce has been due to the replacement of manual labor by machines in virtually every phase of mining. At underground mines, the improvement of equipment and the introduction of remote-controlled mining and roofbolting and other innovations have reduced crew sizes while improving safety and productivity. At surface mines, operations have speeded up and the number of employees has dropped through the use of larger and faster excavating and transporting equipment and improved blasting techniques. At both types of mines, computers have become an integral part of mine planning and operations and are also having a positive influence on productivity. The greatest loss of miners has been in the coalfields in Appalachia, where the number has been reduced by more than half since 1980, falling from 171,000 to 71,000 in 1993. Nevertheless, Appalachia continues to be the center of the U.S. coal mining workforce, with about 7 out of every 10 U.S. coal miners in 1993. Nearly half of the coal miners worked in Kentucky and West Virginia (Table 6). Table 6. The 10 Leading States in U.S. Coal Mine Employment, 1993
Average Number of Miners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24,063 22,979 10,940 8,339 7,303 5,399 3,866 3,331 3,159 1,841 91,220 101,322 Percent of Total 23.7 22.7 10.8 8.2 7.2 5.3 3.8 3.3 3.1 1.8 90.0 100.0

State

Employment, Productivity, and Earnings
The number of workers employed in the coal industry has declined so precipitously that the size of the coal mining labor force today is less than one-third the size it was a century ago—despite record levels of coal production. In contrast to a range of 400,000 to 800,000 workers employed in coal mining from 1900 to 1950, the number was around 100,000 in 1993. About 6,000 women were employed by the coal industry in production and other work. Before 1973, government records showed no women coal miners, reflecting biases and superstitions, such as the belief that women brought bad luck into the mine. By 1979, however, their ranks had grown to about 2,600, and in 1982, employment of women coal miners peaked at 11,600. The rise was spurred by the 1964 Civil Rights Act, a 1965 Executive order barring discrimination in employ-

Kentucky . . . West Virginia Pennsylvania Virginia . . . . Illinois . . . . . Alabama . . . Ohio . . . . . . Indiana . . . . . Wyoming . . . Texas . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Note: Average number working daily. Includes employees engaged in production, preparation, processing, development, maintenance, repair, shop or yard work at mining operations. Excludes office workers and mines producing less than 10,000 short tons of coal during the year and preparation plants with less than 5,000 employee hours. Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

21

About 100,000 coal miners were employed in 1993. On average, they produced 5 short tons of coal per hour, earning $17 per hour.

Although coal mine employment has fallen, overall productivity in the U.S. coal industry has reached record levels. Productivity in 1993 was nearly 5 tons per miner per hour, almost six times higher than in 1950, due mostly to a higher rate at surface mines. Productivity at surface mines has consistently been higher than at underground mines, primarily because fewer workers are required. Productivity rose from about 2 tons per miner hour in the 1950’s to a peak of nearly 5 tons per miner hour in 1974, dropped to about 3 tons in 1978, and since then steadily grew to 7 tons in 1993. The decline in 1978 was due to several factors. One was the opening of smaller, less efficient mines (often worked by younger, inexperienced miners) in response to rising coal prices due to the oil embargo in the early 1970’s. Many of these mines later closed when the price of coal dropped and mining became uneconomical. Another factor that initially depressed surface mining productivity was the enactment of the

Federal Surface Mining and Reclamation Act of 1977 and State reclamation laws, which require restoration of mined land, thereby diverting some employees and equipment from production activities. Factors that have been significant in raising the average productivity at surface mines are increases in the size and power of surface mining equipment and the large-scale mining of very thick coalbeds in the West. In underground mines, improvements in productivity have been less dramatic. As recently as the early 1950’s, underground miners averaged less than 1 ton per hour. The rate approached 2 tons per hour when the Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 imposed many new safety regulations (such as the need to stop work between coal cuts to install roof supports). These initially hampered underground productivity, which fell to a low point of about 1 ton per miner hour in 1978. However, the regulations became less of a

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

constraint as miners learned to adapt to the changes without compromising safety. As with surface mines, productivity was also hampered by the opening of many small, less efficient mines in response to rising coal prices and rising demand due to the oil embargo, mines that later became uneconomical and closed. Also taking their toll on productivity in the 1970’s were several major coal miners’ strikes by the United Mine Workers of America. However, by 1993 underground productivity reached nearly 3 tons per miner hour, reflecting the greater use of continuous-mining machines and longwall mining. Coal miners, in general, are the highest paid workers in the mining industry, including oil and gas extraction; their wages are above the average paid in the steel, automobile, and chemical industries, according to the U.S. Department of Labor. In 1993, coal mine production workers averaged $765.90 per week (in current dollars), or $17.25 per hour, working an average of 44.4 hours. A decade earlier they earned $547.83 per week (current dollars), or $13.73 per hour, for 39.9 hours.

operators to have plans for ventilation, roof support, and emergency evacuation approved by the Mining Enforcement and Safety Administration (MESA). MESA was created in 1973 in the U.S. Department of the Interior to handle mine inspections previously performed by the Bureau of Mines. It is the predecessor of today’s Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), formed in 1978 as part of the U.S. Department of Labor. MSHA is required to inspect underground coal mines four times per year and surface coal mines two times per year. It has the authority to issue citations and stop mining operations when conditions are dangerous. As a result of more stringent safety regulations, mechanization, and roof bolting, the record for mine safety has greatly improved. In 1993, coal mining claimed 47 lives. In the 1980’s, an average of 79 coal miners lost their lives each year, whereas in the 1970’s, the toll averaged 129. The worst year in the history of coal mining was 1907, when 3,242 miners perished. Explosions of coalbed methane and coal dust, which are ignited by a flame or spark, cause the major coal mine disasters and claim the greatest number of lives where coal is mined underground. In the United States, the first reported coal mine explosion occurred around 1810 near Richmond, Virginia. The worst U.S. coal mine disaster, taking the lives of 362 miners, was due to an explosion at Monongah, West Virginia, in December 1907. Mine safety regulations and practices have markedly reduced the danger of explosions by requiring sufficient mine ventilation to prevent the accumulation of high levels of methane and coal dust in the mine atmosphere. Coal dust is also controlled by making it noncombustible through the use of watersprays and by “rockdusting” mine areas with pulverized limestone or similar noncombustible material. Other safety measures include the use of explosives and electrical equipment that have passed certain safety tests and are formally approved as “permissible” by MSHA. Historically, winter is the most hazardous time for coal mine explosions. From October through March, MSHA notifies underground coal miners of a “Winter Alert,” warning them that methane and coal dust explosions are more likely to occur during this period than at any other time of the year. Hazards increase because dry winter air entering a mine becomes warm and absorbs moisture from the mine workings. As the mine “dries out,” more coal dust becomes suspended in the mine air, increasing the risk of ignition. In addition, a sudden drop of barometric pressure causes methane to expand and flow from inactive areas of the mine to areas where the miners are working.
23

Health and Safety
Coal mining, particularly underground coal mining, historically has been a dangerous occupation, but the risk has been reduced dramatically. In recent years, the injury incidence rate for coal mining has been generally below that in many sectors of the construction and manufacturing industries, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. The Federal Government has been involved in mine safety since 1910, when Congress established the Bureau of Mines as a research and fact-finding agency on coal mining. In 1941, Congress authorized Federal inspection—but not regulation—of coal mines. After 119 miners were killed in a coal mine explosion in West Frankfort, Illinois, in 1951, Congress enacted the Federal Coal Mine Safety Act of 1952, which increased the Bureau’s inspection authority and empowered it to close underground mines engaged in interstate commerce that did not follow mandatory safety standards for underground coal mines; surface mines and underground mines operations employing fewer than 15 workers were exempted. The Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 vastly increased the Government’s enforcement powers by covering virtually every aspect of coal mining and by mandating fines for violations, authorizing criminal penalties for intentional violations, and enabling miners to request safety inspections. In addition to imposing mandatory safety training, the new law requires coal-mine

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Mining research includes the development of technology that will enable a miner to be located in a safe place while using a computer to control a mining machine.

Although explosions are responsible for the most dramatic disasters in underground coal mines, roof falls historically have been the single most frequent cause of fatal accidents in U.S. coal mines. Roof falls occur when part of the mine roof or rib (side) breaks away. Usually this occurs within 25 feet of the working face, before the area is permanently supported. More roof fall fatalities occur with the room-and-pillar mining method than with longwall mining. Fatalities at surface mines are largely caused by falls of rock from the side of the mine and accidents involving machinery. Haulagerelated accidents generally rank second as the cause of coal mine fatalities. Apart from accidents, coal miners also face the danger of contracting coal workers pneumoconiosis, or “black lung,” the consequence of breathing and retaining too much coal dust. When coal dust collects in the small passages leading to air spaces in the lungs, the lung tissues react with the dust to form masses of dense fibrous tissue. Black lung, a progressive disease, causes
24

difficulty in breathing and persistent coughing, and can put a fatal strain on the heart. Miners with the disease are eligible for disability under the Federal Black Lung Benefits Act of 1977 and its amendments, a program funded through taxes paid on coal production at a rate of $1.10 per ton for underground mines and 55 cents per ton for surface mines. However, most of the Black Lung claims filed before 1973 are administered through the Social Security Administration.

Coal Miners’ Unions and Strikes
The United Mine Workers of America (UMWA) ranks first among about 40 labor unions that represent U.S. coal miners. Formed in 1890, the UMWA has been the leading coal miners union and has been in the forefront as a collective bargaining organization representing coal miners. It is the major union in the coalfields in the East. UMWA coal miners currently account for about 40 percent of the U.S. coal mining workforce and produce about one-fourth of the total coal output. Other unions

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

represent 4 percent of the coal miners and account for a 9-percent share of production. By contrast, nonunion workers compose about 55 percent of the coal mining workforce and account for about two-thirds of U.S. coal production. Major coal miners’ strikes—those creating a significant disruption on coal supplies—are generally precipitated when a contract expires and no agreement is reached between the UMWA and the Bituminous Coal Operators Association (BCOA) over the terms of a new contract. The principal bargaining issues focus on wage and fringe benefits, including health and retirement benefits. Contract agreements between the UMWA and the BCOA traditionally set the pattern for contracts between smaller unions representing coal miners and other mining companies or associations that do not belong to the BCOA, such as the Independent Bituminous Coal Bargaining Alliance. Overall production is usually not significantly affected by the small “wildcat” strikes that occur locally from time to time, usually over miners’ grievances and local issues. During a major strike, nonunion mines may also be idled by pickets or by miners walking out in “sympathy” strikes. Generally, strikes by the UMWA are most significant at underground mines in Appalachia, the center of UMWA membership. Before 1984, major coal miners’ strikes were generally nationwide. Since then, the UMWA’s tactic has been to call selective strikes against one or more companies. The striking miners are supported through UMWA payroll assessments into a selective strike fund. The early history of the coal industry often featured long strikes, commonly over needed reforms. In 1922, anthracite miners in Pennsylvania went on strike for 160 days and bituminous coal miners for 140 days. The Nation’s longest coal miners’ strike—166 days in the anthracite region—was in the fall and winter of 1925-26, before the Taft-Hartley Act for ending strikes was enacted. In 1949-1950, a coal miners’ strike lasted 116 days, although the miners went back to work several times during that period. Since 1960, major coal miners’ strikes have occurred in 1966 (16 days), 1968 (13 days), 1971 (44 days), 1974 (28 days), 1977-78 (111 days), and 1981 (72 days). In October 1984, a nationwide strike was averted for the first time in 20 years with the signing of a new UMWA-BCOA contract extending through January 1988, and in early February 1988 another new agreement was ratified without striking. The new contract was for 5 years, whereas past contracts usually lasted about 3 years.

From April 1989 through most of February 1990, a UMWA strike against the Pittston Coal Company, with which it was negotiating a separate contract, affected the company’s mines in Virginia, West Virginia, and Kentucky before a 4 1/2-year agreement was reached. At issue were job security and health and retirement benefits. In 1993, unsuccessful contract negotiations between the UMWA and the BCOA led to a series of selective strikes that idled more than 16,000 miners in seven States in Appalachia. The first selective strikes were against the operations of Peabody Holding Company, the Nation’s top producer, and Eastern Associated Coal Corporation. The strikes lasted from February 2 to March 3 and ended when the negotiators agreed to extend the contract for 60 days. Failing to reach an agreement at the end of the period, the union expanded its selective strikes to include large mines operated by other companies. This new series of strikes lasted from May 10 until December 14, 1993, when an agreement was reached that will remain in effect through August 1, 1998. In addition to increasing wages and pensions, the new agreement provides for 60 percent of new job openings to be filled by UMWA workers, increases health care benefits, and gives the company the right to establish 7-day work schedules. In a separate collective bargaining agreement signed June 20, 1994, the UMWA and the Pittston Coal Company concluded a new labor pact in June 1994 that extends through 1998.

Preparation
Most of the coal produced in the United States undergoes some degree of processing, or preparation, to make it a more marketable product. The amount of preparation required depends on the customer’s specifications. Some coal is blended at the mine where, for example, high-sulfur coal from one area can be mixed with low-sulfur coal from another to produce a medium-sulfur coal that is acceptable to a consumer. Roughly half of the bituminous coal currently mined is sent to preparation (or processing) plants for some form of coal cleaning. About two-thirds of the bituminous coal mined in the East for electric power plants is cleaned, whereas the subbituminous coal and lignite shipped from western mines to electric utilities is generally only crushed and screened to facilitate handling and to remove extraneous material introduced during mining. Nearly all of the coal used to make coke for steelmaking undergoes a high level of cleaning. Cleaning upgrades the quality and heating value of coal by removing or reducing the amount of pyritic sulfur,

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

25

Coal quality is upgraded in a preparation plant. This plant in western Maryland can process 1,500 short tons of coal per hour.

rock, clay, and other ash-producing material. Cleaning also removes materials that becomes mixed with the coal during mining, such as wire and wood. Conventional cleaning methods generally remove up to one-third of the inorganic (pyritic) sulfur in coal, but none of the organic sulfur. Currently, commercial technology is not available for reducing the levels of the alkali metals sodium and potassium. In general, about 30 tons of refuse are removed from every 100 tons of raw (as-mined) coal that is cleaned. Coal cleaning is based on the principle that coal is lighter than the rock and other impurities mixed or embedded in it. The impurities are separated by various mechanical devices using pulsating water currents and rapidly spinning water. The large buoyancy difference between coal’s combustible matter and its mineral impurities is exploited efficiently with the use of liquids

of different densities in dense-medium systems, which are used in about two-thirds of the plants. The finely powdered coal (coal fines) produced during mining, handling, and crushing operations is usable but difficult to clean and handle. Finely sized coal is cleaned by froth flotation, a relatively high-cost chemical/physical process in which the coal adheres to air bubbles in a reagent and floats to the top of the washing device while the refuse sinks to the bottom. About 40 percent of the U.S. coal cleaning capacity consists of plants that use froth flotation to recover coal fines. The remaining plants either discard the coal fines as refuse or mix uncleaned coal fines with the cleaned coal for shipment to customers. Oil agglomeration has been used to a limited extent to clean ultra fine coal. The oil clings to the coal surface, causing it to agglomerate while other refuse particles remain suspended and are removed.

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Coal cleaning consists of the following basic steps involving physical preparation and physical cleaning: (1) crushing, grinding and/or breaking, to prepare the coal for the washing process; (2) sizing, to separate coal into different dimensions, both to match the specifications for the various cleaning devices and to meet market requirements; (3) washing, to remove ash and

sulfur components from coal; (4) dewatering and drying, to remove excess moisture and prepare the cleaned coal for shipment and also to increase its heat value (Figure 10). Cleaned coal of different sizes and properties can be blended at the plant to meet consumer requirements.

Figure 10. Basic Flow of Coal Through a Preparation Plant

Coal preparation reduces the amount of impurities (sulfur and ash-producing minerals) and improves the heating value; coals with different characteristics can be blended to meet certain specifications.

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

27

There were 270 coal preparation plants operating in the United States in 1993, according to Coal magazine. Varying widely in levels of complexity, the plants had capacities ranging from 40 tons to 3,200 tons per hour. Most of the plants were in the East, with those in West Virginia and Pennsylvania accounting for nearly half of the U.S. total. The largest preparation plant was the Bailey plant of Consol Pennsylvania Coal Company in Graysville. Preparation plants in the bituminous coal region are sometimes called “tipples,” because in the past coal cars were “tippled,” or dumped, into the top of the plant; today, transfer is accomplished by conveyor. In the anthracite region, preparation plants are often called “breakers,” a name originating in the fact that anthracite, a relatively hard coal, is broken and sized in the plant.

the three leading States in which domestic coal shipments originate by rail are Wyoming (35 percent of U.S. rail shipments in 1993), Kentucky (18 percent), and West Virginia (10 percent). The largest coal-carrying railroads are CSX Transportation Incorporated, Burlington Northern Railroad Company, and Norfolk Southern Corporation, which together handle over three-fourths of all U.S. coal shipped by rail. Unit trains account for more than half of railroad coal shipments. Unlike a conventional coal train or a mixed freight train carrying individual carloads of coal, a unit coal train carries coal from a specified loading facility straight through to a specified customer without stopping. It uses dedicated equipment, whereas other trains carrying coal generally draw the equipment needed from the railroad’s operating pool of locomotives and cars. Sometimes termed “the train with a one-track mind,” a unit coal train operates on a predetermined schedule, following the most direct route and providing high productivity and low shipping rates. Comprising as many as four or five locomotives and 100 to 110 cars, a unit coal train is over a mile long. It can be loaded with 10,000 to 11,000 tons of coal in 2.5 to 3 hours and unloaded in 4 to 5 hours. In some States, unit coal train traffic can be heavy. In Wyoming, the leading coalproducing State, about 40 unit coal trains left the State daily in 1990 while a like number returned for reloading, according to the Wyoming State Geological Survey. Two types of railroad cars are used for transporting coal, the gondola and the hopper. Gondola cars have flat bottoms, straight sides, and open tops and are unloaded by being tipped over by rotary dumpers. Hopper cars have sloping bottoms with gates that open to discharge the coal. Today’s rail cars hold an average of about 96 tons, nearly 20 percent more than in the early 1970’s and almost double the capacity of railroad cars in the 1930’s. Cars used for eastern coal are slightly smaller than those for western coal, the difference reflecting the density of the coal carried. Eastern coal is denser than western coal and so the equipment designed to haul it has a smaller capacity. Most cars are made of steel, but a large number of aluminum-bodied cars are also used. Lighter in weight, aluminum cars offer a savings in transportation costs because they can carry 5 to 10 tons more than steel cars without exceeding track weight limitations. On the return trip, the lighter cars also result in fuels savings. Waterborne shipments rank next to railroads in coal shipments, accounting for nearly 2 out of every 10 tons of coal shipped annually to domestic markets. However, the proportion of total domestic coal

Transportation
The coal industry depends heavily on the transportation network for delivering coal to customers across the country. The flow of coal is carried by railroads, barges, ships, trucks, conveyors, and a slurry pipeline. Coal deliveries are usually handled by a combination of transportation modes before finally reaching the consumer. The methods of transportation and the shipping distance greatly influence the total cost of coal to the consumer. For some western coals shipped over a great distance, the freight cost may represent three-fourths of the delivered cost of coal. Railroads are the foundation of the coal distribution system, annually handling about 60 percent of the coal shipped to domestic customers. Just as railroads are important to the coal industry, coal shipments, in turn, are the leading source of freight and revenue for the railroad industry. In 1993, coal constituted nearly 40 percent of railroad freight tonnage and provided over $6 billion in revenue, generating about 21 cents out of every dollar of freight revenue earned, according to the Association of American Railroads. Since 1970, railroads have accounted for a steadily larger share of coal shipments from the West (increasing from 61 percent to nearly 70 percent of the total in 1993), reflecting a greater demand for lowsulfur western coal as well as improvements in the area’s rail transportation system, particularly in Wyoming. Over the same period, railroads handled an average of 55 percent of Appalachia’s coal shipments. Rail’s share of coal shipments in the interior region dropped from 51 percent to 45 percent, due mainly to a fall in the demand for the region’s high-sulfur coal to produce electricity and for its coking coal. Currently,
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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

The unit coal train is the symbol of coal transportation. Railroads are the foundation of the coal distribution system. Conversely, coal is the leading source of railroad freight and revenue.

shipments moved by water has declined from 29 percent in 1970 to about 17 percent in recent years, reflecting in part the shift of coal production away from the Northeast and Midwest, the regions with the greatest use of water transportation. Kentucky and West Virginia are the leaders in water transport of coal, together accounting for a little more than half of the total in recent years. Coal’s approximate share of total domestic shipments of major commodities by type of waterway in 1991, according to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, was as follows: coastal, 5 percent; Great Lakes, 17 percent; and inland waterways, 30 percent. Barges and ships move coal on rivers, the Great Lakes, and tidewater areas. The major inland waterways for coal traffic are the Mississippi, Ohio, and Black Warrior-Tombigbee rivers. Towboats plying these waters typically push 15 to 20 barges loaded with 20,000 to 30,000 tons of coal. The amount of coal shipped in a single tow (a string of barges) is determined by the lock size on the waters navigated. Large tows can be

handled in the deeper waters of the lower Mississippi River. On the Great Lakes, domestic coal traffic generally ranks second to iron ore. Shipments are typically made by lake carriers, which are about 700 feet long and 70 feet wide and hold about 20,000 tons of coal. Several lake carriers are about 1,000 feet long and have about three times more capacity. The most extensive coal traffic on the lakes is to destinations in the north and west. Lake carriers sailing south generally contain iron ore or grain. Shipping on the Great Lakes usually is immobilized by ice from mid-December through mid-March. Some coal deliveries from eastern ports to power plants in Massachusetts are carried by a coalburning collier, Energy Independence, placed in service in 1983. Coal deliveries by truck account for about 1 out of every 10 tons of coal shipped. The level of coal transportation by truck has not varied significantly in the past two decades. Although the use of trucks for hauling coal is widespread, it is very important in a

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

29

number of States, including Alabama, Indiana, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Utah. Trucks are used for short hauls, generally of less than 50 miles. Frequently, coal transported by rail or barge is first trucked to the loading dock or transferred by truck at some point. In some areas, such as parts of the Appalachian Region, trucks are the only economical way to transport coal. Individual coal shipments by truck are relatively small. Three-axle dump trucks hold about 20 tons; tractortrailers carry up to 35 tons. The maximum load a truck can carry on highways is limited by State regulations. Aerial tramways, conveyors, and a coal slurry pipeline together account for about the same amount of coal deliveries as trucks. The percentage of coal shipped by this transportation category has increased from about 4 percent in 1970 to about 13 percent in recent years. This growth was partly due to the rapid growth of coal production in the West, where conveyors are often used to deliver coal directly from mines to nearby power plants. Aerial tramways cover relatively short distances, but conveyors usually are many miles long, commonly linking mines with power plants. The Nation’s only coal slurry pipeline is the Black Mesa line. Spanning 273 miles, this pipeline is 18 inches in diameter and connects a coal mine in northern Arizona to a power plant in southern Nevada. It carries about 4.5 million tons of coal annually in a slurry composed equally of finely ground coal and water, the journey from mine to plant taking about 3 days. About 1 billion gallons of groundwater are used annually. There are 9.7 million gallons of water and 45,000 tons of coal in the pipeline at any one time. The Black Mesa coal slurry pipeline began operations in 1970, about 7 years after the closing of the Nation’s first long-distance coal slurry pipeline, the Eastlake, which carried coal from Cadiz, Ohio, to a power plant east of Cleveland.

stockpiles are built up in anticipation of a coal miners’ strike. Downward swings in weekly coal production and supply usually are caused by miners’ vacations and holidays. Strikes by coal miners and workers involved with coal shipments can sharply curtail the supply of coal from the mines. Delays in delivering railroad cars to the mines can result in a drop in coal shipments. Freezing temperatures can hamper the unloading of railroad cars. Although coal shipped by rail in winter is generally treated with freeze-control agents, this protective treatment can be washed away and the coal can freeze solid in the railroad cars. Coal frozen in railroad cars is thawed in heated sheds and/or mechanically broken into pieces of manageable size. Heavy rains and flooding can also impede mining operations and coal shipments. For instance, from June through August 1993, severe flooding along the upper Mississippi and Missouri river basins disrupted coal deliveries to power plants in about nine Midwest States and to power plants in States beyond that area, because trains were delayed or rerouted around the flooded region. As insurance against a disruption in deliveries, large coal consumers generally maintain a 45- to 60-day stockpile of coal. Large quantities of coal are generally stored in open stockpiles on the ground, piled in diverse forms, such as cones, blocks, and rows. Coal is also stored in covered ground storage—in bins, bunkers, and silos. Year-end coal stocks since 1990 have averaged nearly 190 million tons, equivalent to about one-fifth of the average annual coal consumption. More than 80 percent of the stockpiled coal was at electric power plants.

Use Supply and Stocks
In recent years the supply of coal from U.S. mines has averaged about 19 million tons per week. This is more than enough to provide the fuel required to generate electricity for a metropolitan area the size of New York City for about a year. The weekly supply of coal from the mines varies considerably. Sharp rises occur in response to increased demand, including increased use of coal-fired electricity generation to offset declines in generation from other sources. These declines occur, for example, when nuclear power generation drops because of scheduled maintenance, when hydroelectric generation falls during periods of low water, or when coal
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Coal is used in all 50 States and the District of Columbia. In 1993, 10 States accounted for about half of the total coal consumed (Table 7). Of these, Texas, Indiana, Ohio, and Pennsylvania consumed the largest amounts, with a combined share of 29 percent of the tonnage. However, based on the estimated energy content of the coal consumed, the ranking was as follows: Ohio, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Indiana. The use of coal in the United States has risen almost steadily since the early 1970’s, reaching record levels and totaling 926 million tons in 1993. On a per capita basis, coal consumption in 1993 was nearly 20 pounds per person per day, which continued an upward trend

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 7. The 10 Leading U.S. Coal-Consuming States, 1993 (Million Short Tons)
State Texas . . . . . Indiana . . . . . Ohio . . . . . . Pennsylvania Kentucky . . . Illinois . . . . . Alabama . . . Michigan . . . West Virginia North Dakota . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consumption 96.8 60.4 59.0 56.2 39.1 38.1 33.0 32.2 32.0 30.3 477.2 925.9 Percent of Total 10.5 6.5 6.3 6.1 4.2 4.1 3.6 3.5 3.5 3.3 51.4 100.0

Figure 11. U.S. Daily Per Capita Coal Consumption, 1950-1993
25
All Other Coal Consumption Coal Consumption for Generating Electricity

20 17.9 17.9 17 17.0

19.6 19.6
2.7

19.7 19.7
2.4

Pounds Per Day

15
14.6

14.1 14.1 12.2 12.2
5.5

3.2

16.9

17.3

10
6.8

13.8

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8.6

5
5.4
3.3

Note: Total does not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: Energy Information Administration, Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121(93/4Q) (Washington, DC, May 1994); and Quarterly Coal Report January-March 1994, DOE/EIA-0121(94/1Q) (Washington, DC, August 1994).

0 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 1993 Years

that began in the 1960’s (Figure 11). Virtually all of the growth has been due to the increasing amounts of coal used to generate electricity. The upward trend in coal consumption was spurred by the Arab oil embargo in the first half of the 1970’s, which caused substantial price increases for petroleum, and by a natural gas shortage in the second half of the 1970’s. As a result, the share of total U.S. energy consumption supplied by coal has increased significantly. At the time of the Arab oil embargo, coal accounted for 17 percent of U.S. energy consumption. In 1993 its share was 23 percent. Historically, however, this is a markedly smaller proportion than in the early 1900’s, when coal supplied nearly all of the U.S. energy needs, or 1940, when it supplied about half. In recent years, the increase in energy supplied by coal has not matched the increase in coal tonnage. For example, the amount of coal consumed increased by 32 percent from 1980 through 1993, but the energy derived from the coal in 1993 was only 26 percent higher than in 1980. The difference is due to the greater use of subbituminous coal and lignite, which are mined in the West. Both have a relatively low heat content as compared with bituminous coal, which held a larger share of consumption in earlier years.

U.S. daily per capita coal consumption has risen since the 1960’s due chiefly to an increase in the amount of coal used for generating electricity.
Source: Bureau of Mines, U.S. Department of Interior, “Mineral Yearbook,” various issues; Energy Information Administration, “Quarterly Coal Report,” DOE/EIA-0121, various issues; and Bureau of the Census, U.S. Department of Commerce, “Statistical Abstracts of the United States,” various issues.

More than 8 out of every 10 tons of the coal used in the United States are for electricity generation, the most important market for coal since the 1950’s. The coal is used to produce high-pressure steam for driving an electrical generator (Figure 12). Due to the cost advantage that coal offers over oil and gas, the amount of coal used by utilities annually has trended upwards. Although electricity generated from nuclear power increased in the 1970’s and 1980’s, at the expense of petroleum and gas, coal’s contribution was on an upward trend, generally keeping pace with the growing demand for electricity. Part of the reason for the rise was the Powerplant and Industrial Fuel Act of 1978. The law prohibited the use of oil or gas in most new large boilers and compelled utilities to convert many

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

31

Figure 12. Schematic of a Coal-Fired Power Plant

Most coal-fired power plants burn pulverized coal to produce high-pressure steam. The steam, in turn, runs a turbine that drives an electric generator. Most of the coal ash is carried in flue gas as fly ash and removed chiefly by electrostatic precipitators, but fabric filters are also used. Plants with scrubbers remove over 90 percent of the sulfur dioxide in the flue gases. About one-third of the energy released during coal combustion is converted into electricity.

existing oil- and gas-fired boilers to coal. The law was amended in 1978 to repeal restrictions on the use of oil or gas in new baseload power plants if they were designed to permit future conversion to coal, but the later regulations became redundant because rapidly rising petroleum prices and natural gas shortages in the 1970’s gave coal the economic advantage. Utility coal consumption has risen from less than 400 million tons per year during the early 1970’s to more than 800 million tons in 1993. The electricity generated from coal has increased from 704 billion kilowatthours in 1970, when it accounted for 46 percent of the total, to a record 1,580 billion kilowatthours in 1993, when its share was 57 percent. By comparison, of the total electricity generated in 1993, nuclear power supplied 21 percent; natural gas and hydropower, 9 percent each; petroleum, 3 percent; and geothermal and other sources, 1 percent.

In addition to the electricity produced by utility companies, a small amount of electricity is generated by nonutility power producers, chiefly industrial plants that produce it for their own use. In 1993, coal-fired generation in this sector totaled about 43 billion kilowatthours. Most of the coal used to generate electricity is burned in pulverized-coal-fired boilers. Pulverized-coal firing, introduced in the electric utility industry in the early 1920’s, is a major improvement over other methods of coal combustion because it permits the use of larger, more efficient boilers. Pulverized coal, which is ground as fine as flour, is blown into the furnace and ignited instantly to burn in suspension. The most common pulverized-coal boilers are classified as having a “dry bottom” because the coal ash does not reach fusion temperature. About 80 percent of the coal ash produced is carried in the flue gases as fly ash, while only 20

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percent of the ash settles to the bottom of the furnace. This type of unit operates most efficiently with coals that have an ash fusion temperature that is above the furnace temperature, so that slag (molten ash) does not form. A “wet bottom furnace” is designed so that ash fuses to form slag. The coal ash produced consists of approximately half fly ash and half bottom ash, which is drawn off as slag. A smaller amount of utility coal is used in stoker furnaces, which are supplied with crushed coal on a moving grate; and in cyclone furnaces, which burn crushed coal carried in a whirling stream of air. A few generating plants use fluidized-bed combustion, a technique for burning crushed coal (often of low quality) in a bed that behaves like a boiling fluid as currents of high-velocity air flows through it. Currently, U.S. coal-fired power plants produce about 90 million tons of combustion byproducts in the form of fly ash, bottom ash, boiler slag, and flue-gas desulfurization material. About one-fourth of these byproducts are used in various ways, such as in cement and concrete production and as roadbase materials; the rest is disposed of in surface impoundments, landfills, and waste piles. Nearly 500 of the 3,000 power plants in the United States use coal. In 1993, these coal-burning plants were located in 44 States. Eight of the States relied on coal for over three-fourths of their generating capability. Another 14 States depended on coal for 50 to 75 percent of their electricity generation. The five leading States generating electricity from coal were Ohio, Texas, Pennsylvania, Indiana, and Kentucky. The largest U.S. coal-fired power plants are the Scherer plant (3.3 million kilowatts of summer generating capability) and the Bowen plant (3.2 million kilowatts) of Georgia Power Company; the Gibson plant (3.1 million kilowatts) of PSI Energy, Inc., in Indiana; and the Monroe plant (3.0 million kilowatts) of Detroit Edison Company, in Michigan. Each of these power plants can generate enough electricity for a city with a population of over 1 million. Large power plants consume coal at rates of more than 20,000 tons per day, the amount of coal held by about 200 railroad cars. Some power plants are minemouth plants, constructed near one or more mines that provide a convenient source of coal. In general, each ton of coal consumed at a power plant generates about 2,000 kilowatt hours of electricity. A pound of coal supplies enough electricity to light ten 100-watt bulbs for about an hour.

Another use of coal is to make coke for the iron and steel industry, foundries, and other industries. The presence of large domestic deposits of coking coal, or metallurgical coal, played an important role in the development of the U.S. iron and steel industry. Coke is used chiefly to smelt iron ore and other iron-bearing materials in blast furnaces, acting both as a source of heat and as a chemical reducing agent, to produce pig iron, or hot metal (Figure 13). About 1,100 pounds of coke are consumed for every ton of pig iron produced. Foundries use coke as a source of heat for producing metal castings. Other industrial uses of coke include the smelting of phosphate rock to produce elemental phosphorous and the production of calcium carbide. Small sizes of coke, termed breeze, are used as fuel in sintering finely sized particles of iron ore and other iron-bearing material to produce an agglomerate that can be used in a blast furnace. Figure 13. Using Coke in a Blast Furnace to Make Iron

Coke, iron ore, and limestone are fed into the blast furnace, which runs continuously. Hot air blown into the furnace burns the coke, which serves as a source of heat and an oxygenreducing agent to produce metallic iron. Limestone acts as a flux and also combines with impurities to form slag.
Source: American Iron and Steel Institute.

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Coke is made by baking a blend of selected bituminous coals (called metallurgical coal or coking coal) in special high-temperature ovens without contact with air until almost all of the volatile matter is driven off. The resulting product, coke, consists principally of carbon. A ton of coal yields about 1,400 pounds of coke and a variety of by-products such as crude coal tar, light oils, and ammonia, which are refined to obtain various chemical products (Figure 14). The coke industry was once a major market for coal, accounting for about one-fourth of U.S. coal consumption as recently as the late 1950’s. Since then, coke production has fallen dramatically and its share of total coal consumption currently is about 4 percent because of a decline in the U.S. iron and steel industry, the principal consumer of coke. In general, the iron and steel industry now requires less coke because it produces smaller amounts of raw steel, relying on imports of finished and semi-finished steel to help meet its needs, and because improved blast-furnace technology has reduced the amount of coke needed to produce a ton of pig iron. Furthermore, less coke is needed due to the greater use of certain steel-making technologies, such as the basic oxygen furnace, which enables scrap iron to replace pig iron in some processes, and the electric arc furnace, which produces steel from a charge

consisting of 99 percent scrap iron and recycled steel and 1 percent iron pellets. (The steel industry has not used the open-hearth furnace since 1991.) The substitution of other products for steel (such as plastics, aluminum, magnesium, and titanium) has also indirectly reduced the need for coke. Among the recent technological changes that are responsible for reducing the use of traditional coke in blast furnaces is the use of pulverized coal injection, a process developed in the 1960’s by Armco Steel. By using pulverized coal injection, steel companies can reduce the need for coke by as much as 40 percent, cut down on environmental problems associated with coke production, and reduce the need for other, more costly supplemental blast furnace fuels, such as natural gas. Pulverized coal, which has the consistency of face powder, is made from the relatively abundant lower grades of coal and blown into the blast furnace. Granular coal, similar in size to sugar, is also being tested in blast furnaces. At the beginning of 1994, 31 coke plants were in operation, less than half the number a decade earlier. Although some plants were closed because of the decline in the steel industry, many closings targeted older plants that were shut down because of the high cost of refurbishing them to meet air pollution

Figure 14. Production of Coke and Coal Chemicals (Approximate Yields per Ton of Coal)

Metallurgical (coking) coal is converted in special high-temperature ovens into coke, which is used in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. The coking process also yields useful coal chemicals as by-products.
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standards. More than half of the active plants are furnace plants, operated by iron and steel companies to produce coke for their blast furnaces; these plants account for about 80 percent of the U.S. coke capacity. The other coke plants, called merchant plants, sell coke on the open market. Both segments of the coke industry are faced with the advanced age of many of their coke ovens and the rising costs of replacing them with environmentally clean ovens. Indiana and Pennsylvania are the leading coke-producing States. Coal is also used as a source of heat in other industrial, manufacturing, and commercial establishments, as well as in homes. Most U.S. cement plants burn coal, using about a ton for each 3.5 tons of cement produced. A number of cogeneration plants consume coal to produce steam for generating electricity and for heating. Since December 1984, lignite has been converted into pipeline-quality gas at the Great Plains Synfuels Plant, near Beulah, North Dakota (Figure 15). The first of its type to operate commercially in the United States, the plant converts an average of 16,000 tons of lignite per day into 142 million cubic feet of gas. In 1987, a coal gasification facility began operations at Plaquemine, Louisiana, to produce gas for the cogeneration of steam and electricity for the Dow Chemical Company. The plant has a coal processing capacity of 2,400 tons per day. Some coal is used for transportation, but the amount is insignificant. The coal-burning locomotives of the past, now replaced by more efficient diesel-electric locomotives, were once major coal consumers requiring a coal supply that often exceeded 100 million tons per year. Today’s coal-burning locomotives are used for tourist attractions and excursions, although one was in regular, short-haul revenue service in Illinois as recently as 1986. (It is interesting to note that research is underway to develop a new generation of coal-fired locomotives fueled with coal-oil mixtures, coal-derived liquids, or coal gas.) A coal-fired ship more than 60 years old was reported in service on the Great Lakes in 1991. A large coal-fired ship, the Energy Independence, placed in service in 1983, transports coal from eastern ports to power plants in Massachusetts. The ship, 665 feet long and with a coal-capacity of about 36,000 tons, is the first of its type built in the United States since 1929. Although primarily a fuel, coal has other uses. The process of converting coal into coke yields by-products of benzene, coal tars, naphtha, and similar chemicals that are used to manufacture solvents, varnishes,

Figure 15. Schematic of Coal Gasification, Great Plains Synfuels Plant, Beulah, North Dakota
Oxygen Lignite Steam

Gasification (2,2000F)

Gas Cooling

Bypr oducts*

Hydrogen Enrichment

Gas Cleanup
Impurities
Methanation

Synthetic Natural Gas

* Includes ammonia, sulfur, liquid nitrogen, krypton, xenon, and phenols.

In coal gasification, the molecular structure of coal is broken down to produce hydrogen and carbon, which are combined to form (CH4), the main constituent of natural gas. Synthetic natural gas forms when carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide react with hydrogen in the presence of a nickel catalyst.
Source: Dakota Gasification Company.

perfumes, medicines, dyes, and plastics. In the past, coke plants were a major source of chemicals, but today their output is overshadowed by chemicals produced from petroleum. Coal is also used to manufacture diverse products such as calcium carbide, silicon carbide, refractory bricks, carbon and graphite electrodes, adsorbents, carbon black, and fillers. Since 1983, coal has been used as a raw material at Eastman Kodak’s plant in Kingsport, Tennessee, to manufacture acetic anhydride, which is used in making photographic film base, acetate yarns, and other plastic-based materials. Montan wax is extracted from certain lignites at Ione, in northern California, for use in polishes,

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waxes, carbon paper, phonograph records, inks, coatings, and electrical insulating materials. Resin recovered from coal in Utah is used in making adhesives, rubber, varnish, enamel, paint, coating, thermoplastics, and ink. Oxidized lignite, or leonardite, from North Dakota has been used in oil-drilling mud, in water treatment, in certain wood stains, and as soil conditioners. Activated carbon is manufactured from lignite in Marshall, Texas. Some of the ash from coal-fired power plants is used in manufacturing concrete and cinder blocks, in constructing roads, and in reclaiming surface-mined areas.

Canada, historically, has been the principal export market for U.S. coal, including some anthracite for use in a smelting process to produce paint pigments. Western Europe became a major market for U.S. coal following World War II, especially for metallurgical coal, with the largest tonnages currently shipped to Italy, Belgium and Luxembourg, and the Netherlands. Japan has been predominant as a market for metallurgical coal since 1967. Brazil is the largest South American importer of U.S. metallurgical coal. About half of the total U.S. coal exported is shipped from the Norfolk, Virginia, customs district. Other large coal-exporting customs districts are New Orleans, Louisiana; Cleveland, Ohio; Baltimore, Maryland; and Mobile, Alabama. Channel depths at most U.S. coal-loading terminals limit the vessel size to less than 100,000 deadweight tons. When a large collier (more than 100,000 deadweight tons) cannot be fully loaded because of channeldepth restrictions, it is sometimes loaded by a two stage “top-off” operation. With this technique, the ship is partially loaded at the port and then sails to deeper waters where it is topped-off to full capacity with coal from a self-unloading barge. However, vessels using the Panama Canal are limited in size to 65,000 deadweight tons and are often described as “Panamax” ships. “Capesize” ships are oceangoing vessels too large for the Panama Canal that must travel routes around the capes of Africa or South America. Coal imports, contrasted with coal exports, are relatively insignificant. In 1993, the 7 million tons of bituminous coal imported were valued at about $219 million. The coal was imported chiefly from Colombia, Venezuela, and Canada. Coal imported from Canada was used primarily to meet the needs of U.S areas not easily supplied by domestic sources. The coal imported from the other countries was delivered to electric power plants in the Southeast at prices below those of competing U.S. coal. Imported coal typically has a low sulfur content and is sometimes blended with highsulfur domestic coal to enable the latter to meet airquality emission standards. U.S. coke exports have been small and chiefly to Canada. Coke exports totaled 0.8 million tons in 1993. Coke imports over the past two decades typically have been less than 1 million tons, although larger amounts have been imported when needed to offset a shortfall in the domestic supply. Coke imports in 1993 amounted to 1.5 million tons, mostly from Japan. Some coke was imported from Canada for use by nonferrous industries in the West.

Coal and Coke Trade
Coal exports comprise a small but important market for U.S. coal production. The level of coal exports, consisting of nearly all Appalachian bituminous coal, is influenced by a number of factors, such as changes in the economic conditions in the coal-importing countries, coal-miners’ strikes in the United States and other coalexporting countries, and price competition, as well as changes in the international exchange rate of the U.S. dollar, which determines the price foreign consumers pay for U.S. coal. U.S. coal is currently exported to more than 30 countries (Figure 16). The United States was the world’s leading coal exporter until 1984, when Australia gained first place. Annual U.S. coal exports, valued at $3 billion to $6 billion from 1980 through 1993, are a significant contribution to the Nation’s balance of trade. Since 1960, an average of 1 out of every 10 tons of coal mined has been exported. The amount has ranged widely, from 36 million tons in 1961 to a record 113 million tons in 1981 and totaled 75 million tons in 1993. The 1993 coal exports were the lowest since 1979, a decline generally attributed to a combination of adverse factors: a slump in the world economy, a strike by the United Mine Workers of America, a slowdown of barge shipments due to flooding in the Midwest, and price competition from foreign coal producers. Although coal was exported in 1993 from 15 States, West Virginia, Virginia, and Kentucky predominated, together accounting for three-fourths of the total. Metallurgical coal, or coking coal, is the mainstay of U.S. coal exports, accounting for 67 percent of the 1993 total. However, exports of bituminous steam coal have expanded because many foreign electric power plants, cement plants, and other industries converted from oil to coal when oil prices rose in the 1970’s.

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Figure 16. Major Destinations of U.S. Coal Exports and Shipments from Selected U.S. CoalExporting Customs Districts, 1993 (Million Short Tons)

Anchorage, AK 0.7 Canada 8.9

Italy 6.9 Netherlands 5.6 Belgium & Luxembourg 5.2 United Kingdom 4.1 Spain 4.1 France 4.0 Turkey 1.6 Portugal 1.5 Other Europe 4.6 Norfolk, VA 37.4 New Orleans, LA 9.7 Baltimore, MD 7.4 Philadelphia, PA 0.2

Cleveland, OH 7.8 Los Angeles, CA 3.4 Japan 11.9 China (Taiwan) 3.4 Korea, Republic of 3.3 Other Asia, Oceania, and Australia 0.9 Mobile, AL 6.3

Egypt 0.9 Morocco 0.6 Algeria 0.4

Mexico, Central America, Caribbean Islands, and West Indies 0.3 Brazil 5.2 Argentina 0.6 Other South America 0.5

In 1993, a total of 75 million short tons of U.S. coal was exported to more than 30 countries. More than half of the coal was shipped from Norfolk, Virginia.
Source: Energy Information Administration, (Washington, DC, May 1994).

Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121(93/4Q)

Coal and the Environment
Coal has played an important role in the advancement of civilization, but its use has sometimes been accompanied by environmental penalties, due partly to the mining process and partly to the composition of coal itself. Because of this, a number of laws have been enacted to protect the environment. Coal mining, like all other mining, has a direct impact on the environment. Most visible are surface-mined areas, although proper reclamation can restore the land for other uses after mining. The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, which was extended and amended by the Abandoned Mine Reclamation Act of 1990, requires surface mine operators to maintain

certain environmental standards during mining and reclamation. The Act also requires operators of underground mines to take measures to control land subsidence, which can have a severe impact on roads, water and gas pipelines, buildings, and water-bearing strata. Although subsidence can occur during underground mining, as when longwall methods are employed, it poses a potential threat many years after a room-and-pillar mine has been abandoned because the pillars left to support the overlying strata can deteriorate and collapse. To help pay the costs of reclaiming land and water resources affected by past mining operations, the Act imposes fees on coal production at both surface and underground mines. Companies pay 35 cents per ton of coal mined by surface methods, 15 cents per ton mined underground,

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and 10 cents per ton of lignite. (These fees were extended through the year 2004 by the Energy Policy Act of 1992.) The 1977 Act also provides funds to control fires in abandoned underground mines. Such fires can travel long distances, fueled by coal remaining in the abandoned workings, and endanger life and property in communities situated above the burning area. Waste piles from mining and coal preparation and from coal-fired power plants can also create environmental problems. They are regulated by the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976, the principal law governing the disposal of solid wastes. However, much of the material piled up during surface mining is used during reclamation, when soil and other materials are replaced to reflect natural conditions. The impact of mining and coal preparation on water quality is controlled by the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, which has been incorporated into the Clean Water Act of 1977 and its amendments. One of the environmental consequences of coal mining is acid mine drainage, which contains sulfuric acid produced when pyrite and other iron sulfides react with air and water. The acid water increases the solubility of toxic heavy metals, such as arsenic, lead, and mercury, and renders the water toxic to aquatic life and unfit for domestic and municipal use. Acid mine drainage can be reduced by a variety of methods, such as adding alkaline minerals to neutralize the acidity, sealing abandoned underground mines, controlling drainage, and constructing wetlands with cattails, mosses, and other plants to clean the mine water. When coal is burned, the sulfur in it is converted mostly into sulfur dioxide. In addition, nitrogen oxides are produced from nitrogen in the coal and the air used in combustion, and ash is produced from incombustible material. In the atmosphere, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides are converted to sulfuric and nitric acids, which can react with rain or snow to produce acid rain. Most of the ash produced at coal-fired powered plants is in the form of powder-like particulates called “fly ash,” which are carried in the flue gas. Fly ash is composed mainly of silica and alumina, and may contain potentially hazardous trace elements. The remaining ash is bottom ash, or boiler slag, which is collected at the bottom of the boiler or furnace. Sulfur dioxide emissions are usually controlled by the technique of “flue gas desulfurization,” generally with the use of “wet scrubbers.” These spray the flue gas with a mixture of water and lime or limestone, which combines with sulfur dioxide to form a sludge. With

the less common “dry scrubbers,” a similar spray produces a dry residue. The level of nitrogen oxides emissions usually is controlled by reducing the amount of air used during combustion and by lowering combustion temperatures. Particulates can be removed from flue gas by mechanical devices, but electrostatic precipitators and baghouses are more efficient. With electrostatic precipitators, the most common device in power plants, the particulates are electrically charged and collected on metal plates. In baghouses, powerful fans draw the flue gases through an array of fabric filters that trap the particulates. To maintain air quality, emission levels for sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and particulates have been established by the New Source Performance Standards of the Clean Air Act of 1970 and its amendments. Electric utilities and other industrial coal consumers built before 1971 are subject to emission controls set by the States and approved by the Environmental Protection Agency. Those built after 1971 must meet the following Federal limits, in pounds per million Btu: sulfur dioxide, 1.2; nitrogen oxides, 0.7; particulates, 0.1. Electric generating units constructed or modified after September 1978 are subject to the more stringent standards of the Revised New Source Performance Standards. These are based on the level of uncontrolled emissions and defined in terms of percentage reductions. A minimum of 70 percent reduction is required for coal with a low-sulfur content, and a 90 percent reduction for coal with a high-sulfur content. The emission rate for sulfur dioxide under the new standards range from 0.6 to 1.2 pounds per million Btu. For nitrogen oxides, the standards range from 0.5 to 0.8 pound per million Btu, depending on the rank of coal burned and the method of combustion. The limit for particulates is 0.03 pound per million Btu. The emission standards for industrial boilers constructed or modified after June 1986 are similar to those for electric generating units. In November 1990, the Clean Air Act was amended to strengthen the National commitment to improve air quality. The new legislation establishes as a goal for the year 2000 a reduction in annual sulfur dioxide emissions of at least 10 million tons from the 1980 level. Total sulfur dioxide emissions from all power plants will be limited to 8.9 million tons annually. The reduction will be in two phases. In Phase I (January 1, 1995, through 1999), the 110 largest sulfur-emitting power plants will be allowed to emit an average of 2.5 pounds of sulfur dioxide per million Btu of heat input. In Phase II, beginning in 2000, these plants and almost all others will be required to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions to 1.2 pounds per million Btu.

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Near Colstrip, Montana, mined land has been reclaimed for livestock grazing as mining continues in the background.

One of the major breakthroughs in the 1990 Clean Air Act is a permit program for power plants that release pollutants into the air. The Environmental Protection Agency issues annual allowances to power plants, with each allowance permitting 1 ton of sulfur dioxide to be released from the smokestack. Plants may release only as much sulfur dioxide as their allowances cover. If a plant expects to release more sulfur dioxide than it has allowances, it has to get more allowances. It can buy them from another power plant that has reduced its sulfur dioxide emissions, due perhaps to switching to low-sulfur fuel or installing scrubbers, and therefore has allowances to sell or trade. Allowances can also be bought and sold by “middlemen,” such as brokers, and can be traded and sold nationwide. The program provides bonus allowances to power plants for, among other things, installing clean coal technology that reduces sulfur dioxide emissions, using renewable energy sources, or encouraging energy conservation by customers. The new legislation also requires a reduction of nitrogen oxides by 2 million tons. EPA will establish new limits for emissions of nitrogen oxides. All power plants under the program will have to install continuous emission monitoring systems to keep track of the amount of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides released into the atmosphere. Since passage of the Clean Air Act in 1970, billions of dollars have been spent by the Nation’s utilities to reduce emissions of sulfur dioxide. Because of this huge investment, the Nation’s air is cleaner today than it was

about two decades ago. Emissions of sulfur oxides (comprised principally of sulfur dioxide) from all coalburning sources are responsible for about three-fourths of total sulfur oxide emissions. However, between 1970 and 1992, coal-generated emissions have fallen by about 11 percent even though coal consumption increased by 70 percent. The decline reflects not only a greater number of plants meeting air quality standards through an increased use of scrubbers, but also a drop in the average sulfur content of coal burned. Also of environmental concern are emissions of carbon dioxide from coal combustion and of methane from coal mines, although controls on the emission of these gases from the use of coal and other fossil fuels have not been imposed. Both carbon dioxide and methane are major greenhouse gases and may contribute to global warming. The amount of carbon dioxide emitted when coal is burned varies widely, depending on the rank of coal and the State in which it is produced. Potential carbon dioxide emissions from the combustion of bituminous coal, the leading rank of coal consumed, average 205 pounds per million Btu, but range from 201 to 212 pounds per million Btu. By comparison, the average for subbituminous coal, the second leading rank of coal consumed, is 212 pounds per million Btu, while it ranges from 207 to 214 pounds per million Btu. The emission factor averages 216 pounds per million Btu for lignite and 227 pounds per million Btu for anthracite.

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Estimates of carbon dioxide emissions from coal combustion must take into account the “mix” of coals received from various sources. A voluntary program for companies to report reductions in gas emissions to the Energy Information Administration was among the provisions of the Energy Policy Act of 1992. The Act addresses many energy-related issues, including the attainment of higher energy efficiency standards and the environmentally sound use of fossil fuels. Methane emissions occur mostly during production in underground mines. Bituminous coal generally emits more methane than the lower rank coals such as lignite. The amount of methane contained in a coalbed increases with depth. Small amounts of methane can also be released when coal is transported and when it is pulverized for combustion.

Advanced coal preparation, geared to improving current state-of-the-art techniques, could remove as much as 90 percent of the sulfur and ash from the coal, improving its burning and environmental qualities. This can be accomplished by using sophisticated physical, chemical, and biological methods to clean finely ground coal. The removal of sulfur not associated with mineral impurities and of alkali metal impurities in western coals are challenging goals, because these elements are generally bonded to the organic coal matrix, requiring the use of chemical reagents. Innovative approaches to future coal preparation could include use of microwave and microbial and enzymatic techniques. Drying techniques are being developed to lower the moisture content in western coals (30 percent is not uncommon). When dried, low-rank coals typically crumble and become very dusty. New drying methods will produce solid pellets of coal that have about twothirds less moisture and about one-third more heating value. This dried coal can be blended with raw subbituminous coal or lignite to raise the overall heating value, or with high-sulfur coal to reduce sulfur emissions. Traditional coal-burning methods will continue to be used for many years. However, clean coal technology —a term that entered the energy vocabulary in the 1980’s—offers the potential for a cleaner environment and lower power costs. Included are more effective precombustion coal-cleaning processes, such as methods for keeping sulfur and nitrogen pollutants inside the furnace and scrubber systems capable of removing pollutants in the form of dry solid waste, reducing the disposal problems created by wet sludge. Some clean coal technologies depart from conventional coalburning methods in that the coal is converted into a gas or liquid that is used as fuel. Advanced pulverized coal technologies can take pulverized coal combustion—the most widely accepted technology for coal-fired power generation—one step further, by refining the process to gain major improvements. Included are low emission boiler systems, which incorporate emission controls at the outset of design and development instead of adding them to a completed system, and cogeneration, which produces both steam and power for power generation and also heat for process and space heating, and can result in improvement in plant efficiency of over 70 percent. Coal gasification, an old technology that is being modernized, converts coal into a gaseous product by heating it with steam and oxygen or air. The gas

Coal Outlook
The Nation’s abundant coal reserves are expected to continue as an important source of energy in the foreseeable future. Annual coal production is projected to remain around 1 billion tons into the next century. Nearly 90 percent of this is projected to be for domestic consumption, principally to generate electricity. The rest of the output is expected to be exported. Research and development are underway to make coal a more competitive and cleaner-burning fuel, as well as a greater source of chemicals. All parts of the “coal chain” are being investigated, from mine to consumer. Both Federal and State pollution control regulations are giving impetus to the coal industry’s effort to produce a cleaner, more efficient fuel. Computer-assisted mining systems under development have the potential to advance mining technology through automation, robotics, and networking programs that can monitor a variety of mining activities, resulting in improved health, safety, productivity, reliability, and economy. Equally important are studies concerned with the human factors involved in coal mining. Although mining disrupts the land for a period of time, considerable progress has been made in reclaiming mined land. This includes the restoration of the land surface, the rehabilitation of soil materials, and revegetation. The goal of reclamation is to restore the mined land to its original use or enable it to be put to another use.

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Pristine coal samples are used by researchers investigating cleaner and more efficient coal use.

produced can be cleaned and used as a fuel or processed further to produce synthesis gas. Synthesis gas (mostly carbon monoxide and hydrogen) can be converted to a substitute for natural gas, chemicals, or liquid fuel. The amount of gas that can be produced from a ton of bituminous coal depends on the technology used and ranges from about 15,000 cubic feet of high-Btu gas (about 1,000 Btu per cubic foot) to 75,000 cubic feet of low-Btu gas (up to 200 Btu per cubic foot). In 1993, three coal gasification plants were in commercial operation in the United States. The Great Plains Synfuels Plant, near Beulah, North Dakota, operated by the Dakota Gasification Company to convert lignite into pipeline-quality gas, obtaining chemical byproducts as part of the process. Tennessee Eastman Company’s coal gasification plant in Kingsport, Tennessee, converted bituminous coal into chemicals. At Plaquemine, Louisiana, subbituminous coal was converted by Louisiana Gasification Technology into gas for use in generating electricity and superheated steam for an adjacent chemical complex.

Coal gasification also has potential in development of fuel cells, which generate electricity from the reaction of hydrogen and oxygen. Currently, most fuel cells approaching commercialization are fueled with natural gas. Because hydrogen is produced in coal gasification, coal gasifiers could be integrated into future fuel cell technologies to provide a new approach to power generation. The research and development of “mild gasification” is aimed at processing coal under lower temperatures and pressures than in a typical coal gasification process. This leads to the production of liquids and solids that can be upgraded into high-value industrial raw material and chemical feedstock, in addition to gas, which can be used to provide heat for the process. Underground coal gasification is the technology of converting coal to gas without mining. Wells are drilled into a coalbed, which is ignited and encouraged to burn. The burning coal generates combustible gases that

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can be collected at the surface for use as fuel or as feedstock for producing chemicals, such as ammonia and urea. The Federal Government has sponsored underground gasification tests in Wyoming, West Virginia, and Washington. Coalbed methane, a danger to mining, is a potentially important source of energy. It is currently produced in some States (principally Alabama, New Mexico, and Wyoming) to supplement the supply of natural gas, which is composed largely of methane; its potential is being evaluated in other States. Methane can be produced from unmined beds or in advance of mining a coalbed. Degasification of a coalbed not only supplies a useful product, but also provides a safety measure because it reduces the amount of methane released into the working areas of a mine. Coal liquefaction, another old technology, converts coal into liquid fuels by three techniques: indirect, direct, and pyrolysis. With an indirect process, coal is first gasified, and then the coal-derived synthesis gas is converted into a variety of liquid fuels, such as methanol, gasoline, diesel fuel, and octane enhancers. The best-known indirect coal liquefaction facilities are operated in South Africa by South African Coal, Oil and Gas Corporation, Ltd. (SASOL), which produces a range of liquid fuels including gasoline, diesel oil, and jet fuel. With a direct coal liquefaction process, finely ground coal in a solvent is mixed with hydrogen and heated to a high temperature under high pressure to produce “synthetic crude oil.” This can be upgraded into higher quality fuels by further processing with existing petroleum-refining techniques. With pyrolysis, dry coal is subjected to high temperatures in a chemically reducing atmosphere to produce a heavy synthetic crude oil, which can be refined, and char, a solid residue that can be used as a fuel. Depending on the process used, a ton of bituminous coal can be converted into 0.5 to 3 barrels (21 to 126 gallons) of liquid fuel. Solvent-refined coal processes produce a low-ash, lowsulfur fuel from coal high in both ash and sulfur by dissolving pulverized coal in a solvent. The final form of the fuel, whether a liquid or a solid, is determined by the process used. Mixtures of finely ground coal and oil or water can be substituted for fuel oil in oil-burning facilities. They have the advantage of being transported, stored, and burned in a manner similar to fuel oil. By weight, coal constitutes 40 to 50 percent of coal-oil mixtures and about 70 percent of coal-water mixtures; some chemicals are added to the mixtures to prevent the coal

particles from settling out in storage. The technology for producing coal-liquid mixtures has been broadened to include methanol and solvent-refined coal. The idea of using coal-oil mixtures is not new. They were tested in the 1930’s as an oil substitute for ships in transAtlantic service, and in the 1950’s they were evaluated as fuel for blast furnaces. The potential of using coalwater mixtures was first demonstrated at a U.S. power plant in 1961. More recently, mixtures of coal and recycled paper have been tested on a small scale for use as fuel. Direct coal-fired heat engines represent another aspect of clean coal technologies. They include direct coal-fired gas turbines, which involve the use of both a coal-water slurry and dry pulverized coal, and direct coal-fired diesels, which involve the development of diesel engines that will burn a coal-water slurry rather than distillate petroleum fuels. Fluidized-bed combustion, a technology dating back to the early 1920’s, is well-suited for burning high-sulfur and low-quality coals in an environmentally acceptable manner. It has become commercially competitive for large industrial applications and is currently used to generate electricity. With this technology, crushed coal is burned on a hot turbulent bed of limestone or dolomite, which absorbs most of the sulfur dioxide produced. As a result, the need for flue gas desulfurization units is eliminated. Only a small amount of nitrogen oxides is produced because of relatively low combustion temperatures. The fluidized-bed units in operation burn coal under normal atmospheric pressures. Advanced units under development—pressurized fluidized-bed combustion systems—operate at higher pressures to achieve greater efficiency. Formcoke is of potential importance as a blast furnace fuel. It is made by heating briquettes of finely pulverized coking coal or other coal, including some subbituminous coals, that has been carbonized to obtain a char, which is further carbonized to produce metallurgical coke. Although pulverized coal is being used in blast furnaces, replacing some of the coke, a clean coal technology project entitled “blast furnace granulated-coal injection system” involves retrofitting blast furnaces with technology to operate with a variety of coal particle sizes. Also under development is COREX (Coal/Ore Reduction), a novel “cokeless” ironmaking process in which coal can be substituted for coke in a special furnace to smelt iron ore. It could replace the conventional two-step coke oven/blast furnace procedure for producing pig iron, eliminating the environmental problems associated with coke

42

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

making. Sulfur in the coal is captured in the by-product slag. Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) conversion is a potential method of burning coal cleanly and at high efficiencies to generate electricity. MHD systems differ from other advanced coal-fired systems in that coal is burned at very high temperatures to produce ionized combustion gases that pass through a magnetic field to create electricity. Linked with a conventional steam turbinegenerator, commercial MHD systems are expected to achieve power generating efficiencies of well above 50 percent—more than one-and-a-half times those of conventional coal-burning power plants. As the complex nature of coal becomes better understood, it could once again become important as a raw material for manufacturing a variety of chemicals. Many of the organic chemicals made today from petroleum were originally by-products of the cokemaking process. With the development of sophisticated chemical processes, coal-derived chemicals could provide the building blocks for making special products, such as carbon fibers, composite materials, and fullerenes (a form of carbon discovered in 1985 that has possible applications in high-temperature lubricants, microfilters, more efficient superconductors, and gas adsorbents). All these and other applied research efforts are being supplemented by fundamental studies of the atomic and molecular structure, composition, and character-

istics of coal. Such work provides the basic information that enables practical research to succeed. The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) is investing in a Clean Coal Technology (CCT) Demonstration Program, a government-industry co-funded effort to develop new technology with the dual goals of attaining environmental quality and energy security from coal. The CCT program, which started in 1986, is confined to perfecting the early stages of long-term, high-risk research that industry is reluctant to pursue. At the end of 1993, the program comprised 45 demonstration projects either underway or completed in 21 States, representing nearly $2.5 billion in Federal funding and more than $4 billion in cost-sharing from private and State sources. DOE also funds coal projects at U.S. colleges and universities. Since 1979, DOE’s University Coal Research Program has provided $76 million for fundamental studies of coal and coal-related topics. Looking ahead, there is little doubt that the United States has the resources to remain self-sufficient in coal well into the 21st century. The Nation has enormous coal reserves, a well-developed coal industry, and advancing coal technologies. The U.S. coal industry continues to adjust to changes in economic conditions, governmental actions, and environmental constraints that influence the production and use of coal. As a producer of an important source of energy, the coal industry will continue to directly or indirectly touch on almost every phase of our daily lives.

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

43

Supplemental Figures and Tables

Removing overburden at a surface mine in Illinois continues into the night.

Figure 17. Selected Developments in the History of U.S. Coal Since 1880

Mechanical stokers introduced Coal-mining machin es brought into use United Mine Workers of America formed (1890) Machin e devel oped to undercut coalb eds 5,00 0-kilo watt steam turb ine introd uced to g enerate ele ctrici ty

1880

1890
World War I, increased demand for coal

1900

Coal mined with steam-powered stripping sho vel Short-flame or "permissible" explosives developed Pulverized coal-firing in electric powerplants Mechanical coal-loading machine introduced Dragline excavators built especially for surface coal mining

1910
All-time high employment of 179,679 anthracite miners ( 1914) Anthracite production peak of 99.6 million tons (1917) Federal Mineral Leasing Act of 1920

1920 1930

All-time high e mployment of 704,793 bituminous coal and lignite miners (1923)

Walking dragline excavators developed

Auger surface mining introduced

1940 1950

World War II: Coal production increase for the war effort and the postwar Marshall Plan

Con tin uou s un derg rou nd mini ng systems develope d Roof bolting introduced in un derg roun d mines Longwall mining with p owered roof supports

Railroads converting from coal to diesel fuel

1960 1970

Unit coal trains introduced by railroads

1980 1990

Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969 Federal Clean Air Act of 1970 Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972 Arab Oil Embargo; coal production and prices rise Federal Coal Leasing Amendments Act of 1976 Federal Surface Mine Control and Reclamation Act of 1977

Federal Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 Coal production in excess of 1 billion tons Federal Energy Policy Act of 1992

46

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Figure 18. Estimates of Recoverable Coal Reserves by Btu/Sulfur Ranges and Region, January 1, 1992 (Billion Short Tons)

Sulfur Content (Pounds per Million Btu)

148.4
9.0

-

> 1.68 (High Sulfur) 0.61-1.67 (Medium Sulfur) < 0.60 (Low Sulfur)
52.1

61.2 55.1
2 2.6 48. 7

87.3

2 0.2 1 2.0 0.5

1 2.3

Appalachian

Interior

Western

Source: Energy Information Administration, U.S. Coal Reserves: An Update by Heat and Sulfur Content, DOE/EIA-0529(92) (Washington, DC, February 1993).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

47

Table 8. U.S. Demonstrated Reserve Base of Coal by Potential Mining Method and Ranked by State Total, January 1, 1993 (Million Short Tons)
State 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 Montana . . . . Illinois . . . . . . Wyoming . . . West Virginia Pennsylvania Kentucky Ohio . . . . Colorado Texas . . . Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Underground 70,959 62,638 42,535 31,819 24,562 23,517 17,895 12,108 0 8,885 0 5,423 5,779 1,479 1,422 2,121 1,747 1,733 1,238 1,332 0 551 660 0 273 0 102 123 15 11 4 2 318,928 Surface 48,912 15,369 26,524 4,679 4,510 5,287 5,951 4,817 13,198 1,186 9,550 711 268 4,518 3,296 2,278 720 457 347 80 976 291 84 480 145 366 119 5 3 0 0 2 155,127 Total 119,870 78,007 69,059 36,498 29,071 28,084 23,845 16,925 13,198 10,071 9,550 6,134 6,047 5,998 4,718 4,399 2,467 2,190 1,584 1,412 976 842 744 480 417 366 220 128 18 11 4 4 474,055

North Dakota Alaska . . . . . Utah . . . . . . . Missouri . . . . Alabama . . . . New Mexico Virginia . . . . Iowa . . . . . . Oklahoma . . Washington Kansas . . . Tennessee Maryland . Louisiana . Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

South Dakota . Arizona . . . . . Michigan . . . . Oregon . . . . . . North Carolina Idaho . . . . . . . Georgia . . . . .

U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Production 1992, DOE/EIA-0118(92) (Washington, DC, October 1993).

Table 9. Estimates of U.S. Recoverable Coal Reserves by Btu/Sulfur Content and Region, 1992 (Million Short Tons Remaining as of January 1, 1992)
Sulfur Content (pounds per million Btu) Region Appalachian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Western . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ≤.60 (low sulfur) 12,291 548 87,332 100,171 0.61-1.67 (medium sulfur) 20,237 11,970 52,098 84,305 ≥1.68 (high sulfur) 22,558 48,693 8,956 80,206 Total 55,086 61,210 148,386 264,682

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Btu = British thermal unit. Source: Energy Information Administration, U.S. Coal Reserves: An Update by Heat and Sulfur Content, DOE/EIA-0529(92) (Washington, DC, February 1993).

48

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Figure 19. Regional Patterns of U.S. Coal Production, 1993

Production (Total: 945 Million Short Tons) Surface: 594 Million Short Tons 100 75 331 50 152 25
Percent

Number of Mines (Total: 2,475) Surface: 1,279 100 1,055 75 50

111
Percent

25

0 -25 -50 -75 -100

Appalachian

Interior
56

Western
38

Appalachian 0
-25 -50

165 Interior
54

59

Western
34

257

-75 -100 1,108 Underground: 1,196

Underground: 351 Million Short Tons Number of Miners*(Total: 101,322) Surface: 36,718 100 75 20,365 50 25
Percent

Western Appalachian Interior
Value of Production (Total: $18.8 Billion) Surface: $9.3 Billion 100 75 50 $4.1 $3.3 $1.9

8,309

8,044
Percent

25 0 -25 -50

0 -25 -50 -75

Appalachian

Interior
10,246

Western
3,402

Appalachian

Interior
$1.4

Western
$0.8

50,956 -100 Underground: 64,604

-75 -100

$7.3 Underground: $9.5 Billion

*At mines that produced 10,000 or more short tons.

The Appalachian Region is the Nation’s principle source of coal. In 1993, it accounted for almost half of the total output, most of the mines and miners, and more than half of the total value of the coal produced.

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

49

Figure 20. U.S. Production of Energy by Source, 1960-1993
70

Figure 21. U.S. Consumption of Energy by Source, 1960-1993
100

60

Total

80 50
Quadrillion Btu Quadrillion Btu
Total

40

60

30 Crude Oil and
Natural Gas Plant Liquids

40

Petroleum

20

Natural Gas Coal

Natural Gas

20
Nuclear Power

10
Hydropower, Geothermal and Other

Coal Hydropower, Geothermal and Other Nuclear Power

0 1960

1970

1980 Year

1990

0 1960

1970

1980 Year

1990

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994).

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994).

50

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Figure 22. U.S. Coal Production by State, 1993

WA 4.7 MT 35.9 OR ID WY 210.1 NV CA AZ 12.2 UT 21.8

U.S. Total: 945.4 Million Short Tons
NH ND 32.0 SD IA 0.2 IL 41.1 KS 0.3 OK 1.8 MO 0.7 MN WI MI NE CO 21.9 OH IN 29.3 28.8 WV KY 130.5 156.3 TN 3.0 AL 24.8 GA PA 59.7 VA 39.3 NC SC MS TX 54.6 LA 3.1 FL NJ DE MD 3.4 NY VT MA RI CT ME

NM 28.3

AR 0.04

AK 1.6

Million Short Tons More than 100 11 - 100 1 - 10 Less than 1

Of the 26 States with coal production in 1993, Wyoming, Kentucky, and West Virginia predominated. Together, they accounted for about half of total production.

Note: States with no data did not produce coal. Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

51

Figure 23. U.S. Coal-Producing Counties in the United States, 1993

Note: There are no counties in Alaska. In 1993, coal was produced from one mine near Healy, south of Fairbanks, in Yukon River Borough. Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

52

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Figure 24. Average Number of U.S. Coal Miners by Type of Mining, 1993

U.S. Total: 101,322 567 0 WA MT OR ID 2,898 261 NV WY 0 1,769 UT CA 876 0 AZ 1,516 246 NM 233 40 OK TX 1,841 0 AK 96 0 CO 656 1,119 KS SD IA NB 81 0 90 0 180 0 MO 5 0 AR LA 99 0

( 36,718 = Surface ) 64,604 = Underground
ME

653 7

782 ND 0

MN WI MI 4,087 PA 6,853 IL OH 1,107 2,786 2,265 6,196 545 1,601 VA IN 1,247
7,092 271

VT
NH

NY

MA CT NJ

RI

DE MD 181 260

NC SC GA

TN 375 AL 1,692 MS 3,707

WV 4,939 18,040 7,570 KY 16,493

FL

Note: Average number of miners excludes mines producing less than 10,000 short tons during the year. States with no data did not produce coal. Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

53

Table 10. U.S. Coal Production and Related Statistics, Selected Years, 1980, 1985, 1990-1993
Characteristics of Coal Production Production (million short tons) Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mining Method Underground . . . . . . . . . . . Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Region Appalachian . . . . . . . . . . . . Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Western . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Federally Administered Lands Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Federal Coal Leases . . . . Indian Coal Leases . . . . . Coal Rank Anthracite . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bituminous . . . . . . . . . . . . Subbituminous . . . . . . . . . . Lignite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average Value (dollars per short Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Underground . . . . . . . . . . . Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of Minesb Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mining Method Underground . . . . . . . . . Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . Region Appalachian . . . . . . . . . . Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Western . . . . . . . . . . . . . Large Minesc Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Underground . . . . . . . . . Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of Production Longwall Mining Installations . Employment (thousands)d Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mining Method Underground . . . . . Surface . . . . . . . . . Region Appalachian . . . . . . Interior . . . . . . . . . . Western . . . . . . . . . 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993

....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... ...... ....... ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

830 338 492 444 176 209 93 69 24 6 629 148 47

884 351 533 427 188 269 184 159 25 5 614 193 72

1,029 425 605 489 206 334 273 246 28 4 693 244 88

996 407 589 458 195 343 269 240 27 3 651 255 87

998 407 590 457 196 345 267 239 28 3 651 252 90

945 351 594 410 167 369 286 258 28 4 577 275 90

ton)a ........ ........ ........

24.65 33.50 18.78

25.61 33.36 20.59

21.76 28.58 16.98

21.49 28.56 16.60

21.03 27.83 16.34

19.85 26.92 15.67

........ ........ ........ ........ ........ ........ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3,969 1,887 2,082 3,498 337 134 323 170 153 60 NA

3,355 1,695 1,660 2,962 278 115 343 186 157 67 108

2,707 1,422 1,285 2,377 228 102 375 190 185 75 96

2,394 1,255 1,139 2,071 230 93 358 183 175 77 93

2,196 1,138 1,058 1,098 198 90 352 179 173 78 90

2,030 1,034 996 1,743 199 88 348 162 186 78 85

............ ............ ............ ............ ............ ............ hour) ....... ....... ....... ....... ....... .......

229 151 78 171 40 18

169 107 62 122 32 15

131 84 47 95 23 13

121 78 43 86 22 13

110 71 39 78 20 12

101 65 37 71 19 11

Productivity (short tons per miner Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mining Method Underground . . . . . . . . . . Surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Region Appalachian . . . . . . . . . . . Interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Western . . . . . . . . . . . . . . See footnotes at end of table.

1.9 1.2 3.2 1.4 2.3 5.6

2.7 1.8 4.2 1.9 2.8 8.6

3.8 2.5 5.9 2.6 3.9 11.8

4.1 2.7 6.4 2.7 4.0 12.4

4.4 2.9 6.6 3.0 4.2 12.7

4.7 3.0 7.2 3.0 4.4 13.6

54

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 10. U.S. Coal Production and Related Statistics, Selected Years, 1980, 1985, 1990-1993 (Continued)
Characteristics of Coal Production Fatalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average Coal Quality Production Heat content (million Btu per short ton) Utility Coal Heat content (million Btu per short ton) Average Coal Quality Utility Coal Sulfur Content (percentage by weight) . . . . . . . . . . . Ash Content (percentage by weight) . . . . . . . . . . . Cost Disposition (million short tons) Domestic Consumption Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electric Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a b

1980 133

1985 68

1990 66

1991 61

1992 54

1993 47

22.4 21.3

21.9 21.0

21.8 20.9

21.7 20.8

21.6 20.8

21.4 20.6

1.6 11.1

1.4 10.0

1.4 9.9

1.3 9.8

1.3 9.7

1.2 9.6

703 569 92

818 694 93

895 774 106

888 772 109

892 780 103

926 814 75

Current dollars. Annual production over 10,000 short tons each. c Annual production over 500,000 short tons each. d At mines that produced over 10,000 short tons per year. NA = Not available. Note: Totals may not equal the sum of components because of independent rounding. Sources: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994); Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; Quarterly Coal Report, DOE/EIA-0121, various issues; Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Utility Plants, DOE/EIA-0191, various issues; U.S. Department of the Interior, Mineral Revenues 1993, Report on Receipts from Federal and Indian Leases and prior issues; and U.S. Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration, Injury Experience in Coal Mining, various annual issues; annual longwall census made by Coal magazine, and predecessor Coal Mining and Processing.

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

55

Figure 25. U.S. Coal Production by Rank, 1970-1993
700
Bituminous

600

500
Million Short Tons

400

300

200
Subbituminous

100

Lignite Anthracite

0 1970 1975 1980 Years 1985 1990

Bituminous coal is the major rank of coal mined in the United States, but lower-rank coals are becoming more important while anthracite is declining.

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994); and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

56

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 11. U.S. Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region and State, Selected Years, 1970, 1980, 1990-1993 (Thousand Short Tons)
Coal-Producing Region and State Appalachian Total . Alabama . . . . . . . Georgia . . . . . . . . Kentucky, Eastern Maryland . . . . . . . Ohio . . . . . . . . . . Pennsylvania Total Anthracite . . . . . Bituminous . . . . . Tennessee . . . . . . Virginia . . . . . . . . West Virginia . . . . Interior Total . . . . . Arkansas . . . . . . . Illinois . . . . . . . . . Indiana . . . . . . . . Iowa . . . . . . . . . . Kansas . . . . . . . . Kentucky, Western Louisiana . . . . . . . Missouri . . . . . . . . Oklahoma . . . . . . Texas . . . . . . . . . Western Total Alaska . . . . . Arizona . . . . California . . . Colorado . . . Montana . . . New Mexico . North Dakota Utah . . . . . . Washington . Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1970 427,569 20,560 0 72,498 1,615 55,351 90,220 9,729 80,491 8,237 35,016 144,072 149,945 268 65,119 22,263 987 1,627 52,807 0 4,447 2,427 0 35,145 549 132 0 6,025 3,447 7,361 5,639 4,733 37 7,222 567,758 44,901 612,659 1980 444,314 26,403 3 109,186 3,760 39,394 93,125 6,056 87,069 9,850 41,009 121,584 176,309 319 62,543 30,873 559 842 40,958 0 5,503 5,358 29,354 209,077 791 10,905 0 18,846 29,872 18,425 16,975 13,236 5,140 94,887 578,688 251,012 829,700 1990 488,993 29,030 0 128,396 3,487 35,252 70,514 3,506 67,008 6,193 46,917 169,205 205,671 59 60,393 35,907 381 721 44,926 3,186 2,647 1,698 55,755 334,411 1,706 11,304 61 18,910 37,616 24,292 29,213 22,058 5,001 184,249 630,218 398,858 1,029,076 1991 457,808 27,269 0 117,220 3,773 30,569 65,381 3,445 61,936 4,290 41,954 167,352 195,418 52 60,258 31,468 344 416 41,760 3,151 2,304 1,841 53,825 342,758 1,436 13,203 57 17,834 38,237 21,518 29,530 21,945 5,143 193,854 591,294 404,690 995,984 1992 456,565 25,796 0 119,382 3,341 30,403 68,981 3,483 65,498 3,476 43,024 162,164 195,659 58 59,857 30,466 289 363 41,686 3,240 2,886 1,741 55,071 345,321 1,534 12,512 103 19,226 38,889 24,549 31,744 21,339 5,251 190,172 588,525 408,970 997,545 1993 409,718 24,768 0 120,191 3,355 28,816 59,700 4,306 55,394 3,047 39,317 130,525 167,174 44 41,098 29,295 175 341 36,108 3,134 653 1,758 54,567 368,532 1,601 12,173 0 21,886 35,917 28,268 31,973 21,847 4,739 210,129 516,219 429,205 945,424

East of the Miss. River . . . . . . . . . West of the Miss. River . . . . . . . . . U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of Independent rounding. Sources: 1970: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook; 1980-1993: Energy Information Administration, Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

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Table 12. Total U.S. Coal Production and Number of Mines by State and Type of Mining, 1993 (Thousand Short Tons)
Underground Coal-Producing State and Region Alabama . . . . . . . . Alaska . . . . . . . . . . Arizona . . . . . . . . . Arkansas . . . . . . . . Colorado . . . . . . . . Illinois . . . . . . . . . . Indiana . . . . . . . . . . Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . Kansas . . . . . . . . . Kentucky, Total . . . . Kentucky, Eastern Kentucky, Western Louisiana . . . . . . . . Maryland . . . . . . . . Missouri . . . . . . . . . Montana . . . . . . . . . New Mexico . . . . . . North Dakota . . . . . Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . Oklahoma . . . . . . . Pennsylvania, Total . Anthracite . . . . . . Bituminous . . . . . Tennessee . . . . . . . Texas . . . . . . . . . . Utah . . . . . . . . . . . Virginia . . . . . . . . . Washington . . . . . . West Virginia, Total . Northern . . . . . . . Southern . . . . . . . Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Number of Mines 12 0 0 1 13 26 5 0 0 446 425 21 0 4 0 1 1 0 9 1 116 52 64 22 0 15 181 0 339 73 266 4 1,108 54 34 1,160 36 1,196 Production 15,557 0 0 2 12,843 33,096 2,583 0 0 92,207 71,919 20,288 0 2,528 0 10 719 0 10,437 98 36,934 416 36,517 1,896 0 21,847 30,166 0 87,997 27,133 60,864 2,136 257,433 56,065 37,555 313,399 37,654 351,053 Surface Number of Mines 73 1 2 5 7 13 51 2 2 250 197 53 2 17 7 7 6 8 126 16 408 96 312 15 14 0 56 3 163 64 99 25 1,055 165 59 1,172 107 1,279 Production 9,211 1,601 12,173 43 9,043 8,002 26,713 175 341 64,092 48,272 15,820 3,134 827 653 35,907 27,549 31,973 18,379 1,661 22,766 3,889 18,877 1,151 54,567 0 9,151 4,739 42,528 6,669 35,859 207,993 152,285 111,109 330,977 202,820 391,551 594,371 Total Number of Mines 85 1 2 6 20 39 56 2 2 696 622 74 2 21 7 8 7 8 135 17 524 148 376 37 14 15 237 3 502 137 365 29 2,163 219 93 2,332 143 2,475 Production 24,768 1,601 12,173 44 21,886 41,098 29,295 175 341 156,299 120,191 36,108 3,134 3,355 653 35,917 28,268 31,973 28,816 1,758 59,700 4,306 55,394 3,047 54,567 21,847 39,317 4,739 130,525 33,802 96,723 210,129 409,718 167,174 368,532 516,219 429,205 945,424

Appalachian Total . . . . . . . . . Interior Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . Western Total . . . . . . . . . . . . East of the Miss. River . . . . . West of the Miss. River . . . . . U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Note: Coal production excludes silt, culm, refuse bank, slurry dam, and dredge operations except for Pennsylvania anthracite. Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Figure 26. U.S. Coal Production by Region and Type of Mining, 1970-1993

350 300 250

350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1970

350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1970

Million Short Tons

200 150 100 50 0 1970

75

80

85

90

75

80 Interior

85

90

75

80

85

90

Western

Appalachian

Surface

U nde rg rou nd

Surface-mined coal production in the West has increased markedly since 1970, largely because of a rapid rise in the coal output from the Powder River Basin in northeastern Wyoming.

Source: 1970-1975: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook; 1976 and forward: Energy Information Administration, Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

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Table 13. U.S. Underground Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region, State, and Coalbed Thickness, 1993 (Thousand Short Tons)
Coal-Producing Region and State Appalachian Total . . Alabama . . . . . . . . Kentucky, Eastern . Maryland . . . . . . . Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . Pennsylvania Total Anthracite . . . . . Bituminous . . . . Tennessee . . . . . . Virginia . . . . . . . . . West Virginia . . . . Interior Total . . . . . . Illinois . . . . . . . . . . Indiana . . . . . . . . . Kentucky, Western Oklahoma . . . . . . . Western Total Colorado . . Montana . . New Mexico Utah . . . . . . Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Less than 25 Inches 915 0 808 0 0 7 0 7 0 0 101 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 915 0 915 25-48 Inches 113,950 3,055 45,862 14 4,494 9,422 50 9,371 1,792 17,753 31,559 3,477 0 170 3,209 98 353 0 0 0 153 200 117,329 451 117,780 49-72 Inches 106,350 12,489 21,043 0 5,943 18,273 138 18,135 64 11,240 37,298 31,898 13,711 1,108 17,079 0 410 410 0 0 0 0 138,248 410 138,658 73-96 Inches 30,003 0 1,885 2,500 0 8,886 51 8,836 0 1,091 15,641 17,670 16,366 1,305 0 0 8,846 2,954 10 719 5,163 0 47,673 8,846 56,519 More than 96 Inches 5,535 0 2,085 0 0 207 41 166 0 13 3,229 3,019 3,019 0 0 0 27,938 9,478 0 0 16,525 1,935 8,553 27,938 36,492 Total Production 256,754 15,544 71,683 2,514 10,437 36,795 280 36,515 1,857 30,096 87,827 56,063 33,096 2,583 20,288 98 37,548 12,842 10 719 21,841 2,136 312,720 37,645 350,365

East of the Miss. River . . . . . . . . . West of the Miss. River . . . . . . . . . U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Notes: Data for bed thickness and production are given as reported on Form EIA-7A and do not necessarily represent complete coverage; they exclude mines that produced less than 10,000 short tons. Total may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-7A, “Coal Production Report.”

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 14. U.S. Surface Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region, State, and Coalbed Thickness, 1993 (Thousand Short Tons)
Coal-Producing Region and State Appalachian Total . . Alabama . . . . . . . . Kentucky, Eastern . Maryland . . . . . . . Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . Pennsylvania Total Anthracite . . . . . Bituminous . . . . Tennessee . . . . . . Virginia . . . . . . . . . West Virginia . . . . Interior Total . . . . . . Arkansas . . . . . . . Illinois . . . . . . . . . . Indiana . . . . . . . . . Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . Kansas . . . . . . . . . Kentucky, Western Louisiana . . . . . . . Missouri . . . . . . . . Oklahoma . . . . . . . Texas . . . . . . . . . . Western Total . Alaska . . . . . Arizona . . . . . Colorado . . . Montana . . . . New Mexico . North Dakota Washington . Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Less than 25 Inches 17,869 5,268 4,235 41 2,026 4,176 17 4,160 106 908 1,108 15,947 0 340 4,276 0 341 1,250 0 365 744 8,632 98 0 0 0 0 98 0 0 0 23,734 10,180 33,915 25-48 Inches 72,592 3,255 23,498 494 13,740 14,463 1,758 12,705 827 5,019 11,296 28,511 17 3,054 12,094 168 0 8,573 0 284 901 3,421 2,988 0 757 211 0 1,723 0 297 0 96,313 7,778 104,090 49-72 Inches 32,365 21 12,615 89 2,492 2,014 938 1,076 0 2,726 12,409 22,385 0 3,980 7,362 0 0 4,916 0 0 0 6,127 19,087 0 0 1,293 0 14,895 2,141 0 758 48,623 25,214 73,837 73-96 Inches 13,732 606 4,396 195 0 624 228 395 211 464 7,236 11,914 0 622 2,946 0 0 1,064 3,134 0 0 4,148 5,132 0 1,964 598 0 2,361 0 0 209 18,364 12,414 30,778 More than 96 Inches 14,594 0 3,367 6 0 904 774 131 0 0 10,317 32,354 0 0 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 32,239 303,662 1,601 9,451 6,938 35,907 8,472 29,825 4,443 207,026 14,608 335,901 350,510 Total Production 151,152 9,150 48,110 824 18,258 22,182 3,715 18,467 1,144 9,118 42,366 111,011 17 7,996 26,692 168 341 15,802 3,134 648 1,645 54,567 330,966 1,601 12,173 9,039 35,907 27,549 31,966 4,739 207,993 201,642 391,487 593,129

East of the Miss. River . . . . . . . . West of the Miss. River . . . . . . . . U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Notes: Data for bed thickness and production are given as reported on Form EIA-7A and do not necessarily represent complete coverage; they exclude mines that produced less than 10,000 short tons. Total may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-7A, “Coal Production Report.”

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Table 15. U.S. Coal Production by Coal-Producing Region, State, and Coalbed Thickness, 1993 (Thousand Short Tons)
Coal-Producing Region and State Appalachian Total . . Alabama . . . . . . . . Kentucky, Eastern . Maryland . . . . . . . Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . Pennsylvania Total Anthracite . . . . . Bituminous . . . . Tennessee . . . . . . Virginia . . . . . . . . . West Virginia . . . . Interior Total . . . . . . Arkansas . . . . . . . Illinois . . . . . . . . . . Indiana . . . . . . . . . Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . Kansas . . . . . . . . . Kentucky, Western Louisiana . . . . . . . Missouri . . . . . . . . Oklahoma . . . . . . . Texas . . . . . . . . . . Western Total . Alaska . . . . . Arizona . . . . . Colorado . . . Montana . . . . New Mexico . North Dakota Utah . . . . . . . Washington . Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Less than 25 inches 18,785 5,268 5,043 41 2,026 4,183 17 4,166 106 908 1,208 15,947 0 340 4,276 0 341 1,250 0 365 744 8,632 98 0 0 0 0 98 0 0 0 0 24,650 10,180 34,380 25-48 inches 186,542 6,310 69,359 508 18,234 23,885 1,808 22,077 2,619 22,772 42,855 31,987 17 3,054 12,264 168 0 11,782 0 284 998 3,421 3,341 0 757 211 0 1,723 0 153 297 200 213,642 8,228 221,870 49-72 inches 138,716 12,510 33,658 89 8,435 20,288 1,076 19,211 64 13,966 49,706 54,283 0 17,692 8,469 0 0 21,994 0 0 0 6,127 19,497 0 0 1,703 0 14,895 2,141 0 0 758 186,871 25,624 212,495 73-96 inches 43,735 606 6,281 2,695 0 9,510 279 9,231 211 1,555 22,877 29,585 0 16,988 4,251 0 0 1,064 3,134 0 0 4,148 13,978 0 1,964 3,552 10 3,080 0 5,163 0 209 66,038 21,260 87,298 More than 96 inches 20,128 0 5,452 6 0 1,112 815 297 0 13 13,546 35,272 0 3,019 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 32,239 331,600 1,601 9,451 16,416 35,907 8,472 29,825 16,825 4,443 208,691 23,162 363,840 387,001 Total Production 407,906 24,694 119,793 3,339 28,695 58,977 3,995 54,982 3,000 39,214 130,193 167,074 17 41,091 29,275 168 341 36,090 3,134 648 1,743 54,567 368,514 1,601 12,173 21,881 35,917 28,268 31,966 21,841 4,739 210,129 514,362 429,132 943,494

East of the Miss. River . . . . . . . . West of the Miss. River . . . . . . . . U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Notes: Data for bed thickness and production are given as reported on Form EIA-7A and do not necessarily represent complete coverage; they exclude mines that produced less than 10,000 short tons. Total may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-7A, “Coal Production Report.”

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 16. Production (Sales Volume) from Federal and Indian Coal Lands Compared with Production from Other Sources and Coal Royalties, Selected Years, 1970, 1975, 1980-1993
Production (Sales Volume) from Federally Administered Lands (million short tons) Production from Other Sources (million short tons) 600.6 611.1 736.8 685.0 708.1 657.8 759.6 699.0 700.6 723.6 724.8 744.5 755.7 728.2 730.9 659.7 Coal Royaltiesa (million dollars) Total U.S. (million short tons) 612.7 654.6 829.7 823.8 838.1 782.1 895.9 883.6 890.3 918.8 950.3 980.7 1,029.1 996.0 997.5 945.4

Year 1970 1975 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
a

Federal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 26.9 69.1 116.5 101.1 98.7 115.8 159.2 166.7 171.2 199.2 209.3 245.9 240.4 238.5 257.6

Indian 4.6 16.7 23.8 22.3 28.9 25.6 20.5 25.4 22.9 24.0 26.2 27.0 27.5 27.4 28.1 28.1

Total 12.0 43.6 92.9 138.8 130.0 124.3 136.3 184.6 189.7 195.2 225.4 236.3 273.4 267.8 266.6 285.7

Federal 1.1 4.9 32.3 43.0 61.9 52.3 69.4 103.5 108.4 152.5 172.8 194.5 236.1 276.7 259.5 264.2

Indian 0.7 3.5 7.9 8.6 8.5 9.4 7.6 23.4 29.5 30.5 46.7 47.7 60.8 62.9 65.9 64.8

Total 1.8 8.3 40.1 51.6 70.4 61.7 77.0 126.9 137.9 183.0 219.5 242.2 296.9 339.6 325.4 329.0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Current dollars. Notes: Output from Federal and Indian lands is reported as sales volume, the basis for royalties. It is approximately equivalent to production, which includes coal sold and coal added to stockpiles. Total may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Sources: 1970-1975: U.S. Department of the Interior, Energy Resources on Federally Administered Lands; Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbook. 1980 forward: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Mineral Revenues 1993, Report on Receipts from Federal and Indian Leases and prior issues; Energy Information Administration, Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

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Table 17. U.S. Coal Mining Acreage, Production (Sales Volume) and Royalties from Federal and Indian Leases by State, 1993
Federal Leases Production (sales volume thousand short tons) 469 0 12,901 106 25,955 4,600 2,147 478 18,856 686 191,365 257,564 Royaltiesa (thousand dollars) 984 0 24,343 178 38,665 16,827 1,063 532 31,025 116 150,509 264,242 Indian Leases Production (sales volume thousand short tons) 0 12,258 0 0 3,518 12,316 0 0 0 0 0 28,091 Royaltiesa (thousand dollars) 0 24,286 0 0 1,786 29,965 0 0 0 0 0 64,750

State Alabama . . . Arizona . . . . Colorado . . . Kentucky . . . Montana . . . . New Mexico . North Dakota Oklahoma . . Utah . . . . . . Washington . Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Acres Leased 3,456 0 38,399 818 36,728 14,142 5,714 2,760 51,243 241 114,529 268,030

Acres Leased 0 64,858 0 0 14,746 36,026 0 0 0 0 0 115,630

U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

a Current dollars. Notes: Output from Federal and Indian lands is reported as sales volume, the basis for royalties. It is approximately equivalent to production, which includes coal sold and coal added to stockpiles. Total may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Sources: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Royalty Management Program, Mineral Revenues: The 1993 Report on Receipts from Federal and Indian Leases.

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 18. U.S. Production Trends in Bituminous Coal and Lignite, 1900-1993
Production (thousand short tons) Year 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Underground 212,316 225,828 260,217 282,749 278,660 315,063 342,875 394,759 332,574 379,744 417,111 405,907 450,105 478,435 421,436 439,792 498,500 546,273 571,275 460,270 559,807 410,865 412,059 552,625 470,080 503,182 556,444 499,385 480,956 514,721 447,684 363,157 290,069 315,360 338,578 348,726 410,962 413,780 318,138 357,133 417,604 459,078 515,490 510,492 518,678 467,630 420,958 491,229 460,012 331,823 Surface NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 1,268 2,832 4,020 5,518 8,111 5,590 8,860 5,057 10,209 11,940 13,607 16,871 16,923 18,378 19,789 20,268 19,842 18,932 19,641 18,270 20,790 23,647 28,126 31,751 30,407 37,722 43,167 55,071 67,203 79,685 100,898 109,987 112,962 139,395 139,506 106,045 Total NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 422,704 442,624 502,520 551,791 579,386 465,860 568,667 415,922 422,268 564,565 483,687 520,053 573,367 517,763 500,745 534,989 467,526 382,089 309,710 333,630 359,368 372,373 439,088 445,531 348,545 394,855 460,771 541,149 582,693 590,177 619,576 577,617 533,922 630,624 599,518 437,868 Minersa Employed 304,375 340,235 370,056 415,777 437,832 460,629 478,425 516,258 516,264 543,152 555,533 549,775 548,632 571,882 583,506 557,456 561,102 603,143 615,305 621,998 639,547 663,754 687,958 704,793 619,604 588,493 593,647 593,918 522,150 502,993 493,202 480,213 406,380 418,703 458,011 462,403 477,204 491,864 441,333 421,788 439,075 456,981 461,991 416,007 393,347 383,100 396,434 419,182 441,631 433,698

See footnotes at end of table

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

65

Table 18. U.S. Production Trends in Bituminous Coal and Lignite, 1900-1993 (Continued)
Production (thousand short tons) Year 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Underground 392,844 415,842 356,425 349,551 289,112 343,465 365,774 360,649 286,884 283,434 284,888 272,766 281,266 302,256 321,808 332,661 338,524 349,133 344,142 347,132 338,788 275,888 304,103 299,353 277,309 292,826 294,880 265,950 242,177 320,321 336,925 315,875 338,572 299,882 351,474 350,073 359,800 372,238 381,546 393,322 424,119 406,901 406,815 350,637 Surface 123,467 117,823 110,416 107,739 102,594 121,168 135,110 132,055 123,562 128,594 130,624 130,211 140,883 156,672 165,190 179,427 195,357 203,494 201,103 213,373 264,144 276,304 291,284 292,384 326,098 355,612 383,805 425,394 422,950 455,978 486,719 502,477 494,951 478,111 540,285 528,856 526,223 542,963 565,164 584,058 601,449 585,638 587,248 590,482 Total 516,311 533,665 466,841 457,290 391,706 464,633 500,874 492,704 410,446 412,028 415,512 402,977 422,149 458,928 486,998 512,088 533,881 552,626 545,245 560,505 602,930 552,192 595,386 591,738 603,406 648,438 678,685 691,344 665,127 776,299 823,644 818,352 833,523 778,003 891,759 878,930 886,023 915,202 946,710 977,381 1,025,570 992,539 994,062 941,119 Minersa Employed 415,582 372,897 335,217 293,106 227,397 225,093 228,163 228,635 197,402 179,636 169,400 150,474 143,822 141,646 128,698 133,732 131,752 131,523 127,894 124,532 140,140 145,664 149,265 148,121 166,701 189,880 202,280 221,428 242,295 224,203 224,938 226,250 214,400 173,543 175,746 167,009 152,668 141,065 133,913 130,103 129,619 119,441 108,979 100,099

a After 1978, excludes miners employed at mines that produced less than 10,000 tons. NA = Not available; relatively small amounts included with underground. Note: Subbituminous coal is included with bituminous coal. Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Sources: 1900-1976: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbooks; 1977-1978: Energy Information Agency, Bituminous Coal & Lignite Production and Mine Operations; 1979-1990: Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

66

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 19. Production Trends in Pennsylvania Anthracite, 1900-1993
Production (thousand short tons) Year 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Underground NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 73,658 69,725 69,964 64,926 53,460 43,834 41,032 48,575 43,783 44,727 42,566 38,142 42,572 41,517 43,877 45,237 42,736 41,775 34,886 38,084 36,963 37,175 27,031 Surfaceb NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA 6,438 5,623 3,864 4,459 6,186 6,021 8,509 8,593 8,376 9,853 9,290 7,957 8,915 9,968 12,491 15,091 17,908 21,926 20,048 22,423 20,227 19,965 15,671 Total 57,368 67,472 41,374 74,607 73,157 77,660 71,282 85,604 83,269 81,070 84,485 90,464 84,362 91,525 90,822 88,995 87,578 99,612 98,826 88,092 89,598 90,473 54,683 93,339 87,927 61,817 84,437 80,096 75,348 73,828 59,646 49,855 49,541 57,168 52,159 54,580 51,856 46,099 51,487 69,385 51,485 56,368 60,328 60,644 63,701 54,934 60,507 57,190 57,140 42,702 Minersa Employed 144,206 145,309 148,141 150,483 155,861 165,406 162,355 167,234 174,174 171,195 169,497 172,585 174,030 175,745 179,679 176,552 159,869 154,174 147,121 154,571 145,074 159,499 156,849 157,743 160,009 160,312 165,386 165,259 160,681 151,501 150,804 139,431 121,243 104,633 109,050 103,269 102,081 99,085 96,417 93,138 91,313 88,054 82,121 79,153 77,591 72,842 78,145 78,600 16,215 75,377

See footnotes at end of table.

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

67

Table 19. Production Trends in Pennsylvania Anthracite, 1900-1993 (Continued)
Production (thousand short tons) Year 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
a b

Underground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28,156 26,342 24,748 17,893 16,852 14,499 15,055 12,616 10,699 9,415 7,696 6,785 6,673 6,715 5,889 5,297 4,088 3,258 2,450 2,106 1,742 1,287 944 726 657 641 584 642 595 570 583 621 579 487 576 727 638 636 610 513 427 324 424 416

Surfaceb 15,921 16,328 15,835 13,056 12,231 11,706 13,845 12,722 10,472 11,234 11,121 10,661 10,221 11,552 11,295 9,569 8,853 8,998 9,011 8,367 7,987 7,440 6,162 6,104 5,960 5,562 5,644 5,219 4,442 4,265 5,473 4,802 4,009 3,602 3,586 3,982 3,654 2,925 2,945 2,835 3,080 3,121 3,058 3,889

Total 44,077 42,670 40,583 30,949 29,083 26,205 28,900 25,338 21,171 20,649 18,817 17,446 16,894 18,267 17,184 14,866 12,941 12,256 11,461 10,473 9,729 8,727 7,106 6,830 6,617 6,203 6,228 5,861 5,037 4,835 6,056 5,423 4,588 4,089 4,162 4,708 4,292 3,560 3,555 3,348 3,506 3,445 3,483 4,306

Minersa Employed 72,624 68,995 65,923 57,862 43,996 33,523 31,516 30,825 26,540 23,294 19,051 15,792 14,010 13,498 13,144 11,132 9,292 7,750 6,932 5,927 5,938 5,800 4,783 4,083 3,847 3,907 3,686 3,655 3,472 3,094 3,631 3,052 2,717 2,099 2,102 2,272 1,977 1,602 1,453 1,394 1,687 1,161 1,217 1,124

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

After 1978, excludes miners employed at mines that produced less than 10,000 tons. Surface production includes culm bank and river dredging operations. NA = Not available; relatively small amounts included with underground. Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Sources: 1900-1976: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Minerals Yearbooks; 1977-1978: Energy Information Agency, CoalPennsylvania Anthracite; 1979-1990: Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

68

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 20. U.S. Labor Productivity in Coal Mining, 1949-1993 (Average Short Tons per Miner per Hour)
Bituminous Coal and Lignite Coal Mines Year 1949 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Underground 0.68 0.72 0.76 0.80 0.88 1.00 1.04 1.08 1.11 1.17 1.26 1.33 1.43 1.50 1.60 1.72 1.75 1.83 1.88 1.93 1.95 1.72 1.50 1.49 1.46 1.41 1.19 1.14 1.09 1.04 1.13 1.21 1.29 1.37 1.62 1.72 1.79 2.00 2.21 2.38 2.46 2.54 2.70 2.95 3.24 Surface 1.92 1.96 2.00 2.10 2.22 2.48 2.65 2.67 2.73 2.73 2.87 2.91 3.16 3.40 3.66 3.76 4.10 4.28 4.48 4.33 4.50 4.53 4.49 4.54 4.58 4.74 3.26 3.25 3.16 3.03 3.12 3.27 3.50 3.48 3.87 4.10 4.32 4.69 5.06 5.41 5.70 6.07 6.51 6.73 7.84 Average 0.80 0.85 0.88 0.93 1.02 1.18 1.23 1.29 1.32 1.42 1.53 1.60 1.73 1.84 1.98 2.11 2.19 2.32 2.40 2.42 2.49 2.36 2.25 2.22 2.20 2.35 1.83 1.80 1.82 1.79 1.82 1.94 2.11 2.14 2.52 2.65 2.76 3.04 3.32 3.58 3.73 3.86 4.12 4.41 4.74 Anthracite Mines 0.36 0.35 0.37 0.38 0.41 0.50 0.50 0.53 0.52 0.55 0.64 0.70 0.70 0.74 0.78 0.76 0.82 0.86 0.90 0.95 0.93 0.89 0.79 0.86 0.89 0.98 0.93 0.90 0.87 0.81 1.06 1.11 0.92 0.59 1.01 1.02 1.05 1.03 1.13 1.21 1.12 1.03 1.39 1.33 1.85 All Mines 0.72 0.76 0.80 0.84 0.93 1.08 1.14 1.19 1.23 1.31 1.43 1.52 1.64 1.74 1.87 1.99 2.09 2.23 2.31 2.35 2.41 2.30 2.19 2.18 2.16 2.31 1.81 1.78 1.80 1.77 1.81 1.93 2.10 2.11 2.50 2.64 2.74 3.01 3.30 3.55 3.70 3.83 4.09 4.36 4.70

Note: After 1978, excludes miners employed at mines that produced less than 10,000 tons. Subbituminous coal is included wit.h bituminous coal. Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding.. Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994); and Form EIA-7A, “Coal Production Report.”

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

69

Table 21. Profile of U.S. Coal Miners, 1986
Employment Category Age (mean) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Male (percent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Educational (percent) High school Diploma . . . . Vocational School Diploma Some College . . . . . . . . . College degree . . . . . . . . Worker Statisticsa 39 98

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

. . . .

54 8 10 5

Work experience (median, years): At present job . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . At present company . . . . . . . . . . . Total mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Job-related training during the last two years (median, hours) . . .
a

4 8 11

35

Production workers. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, Information Circular 9192, “Characterization of the 1986 Coal Mining Workforce” (1988).

Table 22. U.S. Coal Mining Average Employment, Hours Worked, and Earnings, Selected Years, 1980, 1985, 1990-1993
Employment Category Average Employment (thousands) All Employees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production Workers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Production Workers Average Weekly Hours Worked . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Average Hourly Earnings (current dollars) . . . . . . . . Average Weekly Earnings (current dollars) . . . . . . . . 1980 1985 1990 1991 1992 1993

246.3 10.5 203.8

187.3 10.7 152.8

146.5 8.6 118.5

135.5 8.3 109.8

125.5 7.7 101.8

105.3 6.4 83.6

40.5 10.86 439.83

41.1 15.24 626.36

44.0 16.71 735.24

44.6 17.06 760.88

44.0 17.15 754.60

44.4 17.25 765.90

Note: Employment data differ from those collected by the Energy Information Administration due to different survey criteria. Sources: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment, Hours, and Earnings, United States, 1909-90, Vol. 1, Bulletin 2370 (Washington, DC, March 1991), and Employment, Hours, and Earnings, United States, 1981-93, Bulletin 2429 (Washington, DC, August 1993); 1993: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Data Users and Publication Services Group.

70

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Figure 27. U.S. Coal Mining Fatalities, 1900-1993

3500 3000 2500
Fatalities

2000 1500 1000 500 0 1900

1910

1920

1930

1940 Years

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

Although still dangerous, coal mining has become safer due to mechanization, roof bolting, and stringent safety regulations. In 1907, U.S. coal mining claimed a record 3,242 lives.
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration, Denver Safety and Health Technology Center.

Table 23. U.S. Coal Mine Injuries, Selected Years, 1975, 1980, 1985, 1990-1993
Injury Experiencea Fatal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Incidence Ratec . . . . . . . . Nonfatal with Days Lostd . . Incidence Ratec . . . . . . . . Nonfatal with No Days Lost Incidence Ratec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1975 155 0.08 11,119 5.86 9,652 5.09 20,926 1980 133 0.06 18,720 8.27 3,870 1.71 22,723 1985 68 0.04 9,082 5.06 2,520 1.40 11,670 1990 66 0.04 12,246 7.88 3,513 2.26 15,825 1991 61 0.04 11,325 7.86 3,282 2.28 14,668 1992 54 0.04 10,055 7.28 2,959 2.14 13,068 1993b 47 0.04 7,901 6.49 2,416 1.99 10,364

Total Injuries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a b

Includes office workers and contractors. Preliminary. c Numbers of injuries per 200,000 employee-hours. d Includes injuries that result in restricted work activity. Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration, Denver Safety and Health Technology Center.

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

71

Figure 28. Coal Distribution from the Three-Leading Coal-Producing States, 1993 (Million Short Tons)

Wyoming Coal Distribution Domestic, 210.7; Exports, 1.0; Total, 211.7
WA

*
OR

MT

*
0.3
ID WY

ND

1.3
SD

*
0.5

MN

ME VT WI NY

9.1 12.9
IA

NH MA RI

*

CA

NV

25.5 0.8
UT CO NE

4.5
MI PA CT NJ OH WV VA MD D.C. NC DE

8.8
KS

16.0
MO

7.6 12.6
IL IN

5.5
AZ NM

0.2

16.5

10.8
AR TN MS

0.2

KY

*
TX

OK

*
AL SC

16.7

10.8 11.1
LA

0.7
GA

38.0

FL

Kentucky Coal Distribution Domestic, 150.9; Exports, 9.5; Total, 160.4
WA MT ND OR MN ME

0.4
VT WI NY NH

0.2

*
ID CA NV UT

* *

WY

SD

0.9
NE IA

1.2 8.9
MI PA RI

MA

0.2 3.0
MO KS IL

2.4

CT NJ

0.6

5.3
IN

11.4
OH

CO

0.9
WV

0.4
AZ NM OK AR TN MS

28.1

KY

6.7
NC

VA

* DE *
MD 1.0 D.C.

19.6
AL

13.5
SC

*
0.1
TX LA

10.0 14.2
GA

4.1 1.7

FL

14.4

West Virginia Coal Distribution Domestic, 102.7; Exports, 33.2; Total, 135.8
WA MT ND OR MN ME

* *
VT WI NY NH

0.4

ID CA NV UT

WY

SD

1.2
NE IA

3.2 4.2
MI PA RI

MA 1.4

*
2.0
MO KS IL

12.0

3.6
IN

16.1
OH

*
AZ

0.1

CO

22.9
WV

0.2
NM OK AR MS TN

4.8 2.2
AL

KY

3.3 6.2
NC

VA

0.1 NJ 1.6 DE 1.7 MD 5.7
CT D.C.

*

SC

* *

*
TX

0.1 3.0
GA

0.2
LA

*

3.8

FL

1.4

*

Amount is less than 0.1 million short tons. Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).
Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

72

Figure 29. U.S. Coal Production: End Use Distribution by Supplying Area, 1993 (Million Short Tons)

WA MT ND SD NE IA MO MN VT OR CA NV ID UT E WY WI MI OH NY PA VA NC SC GA FL ME NH MA RI CT NJ DE MD D.C.

EU

O C, R/C
AZ 370.1

KS CO

Western
NM

OK

EU C, O R/C, E AR Interior 167.8
TX LA

IL

IN

EU E

WV

R/C O

MS

C
AL

End-Use Code: EU = Electric Utilities C = Coke Plants O = Other Ind R/C = Residentail/Commercial E = Exports

Appalachian 421.5

Supply Areas: Appalachian - AL, KY(E) MD, OH, PA, TN, VA, WV Interior - AR, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY(W), LA, MO, OK, TX Western - AK, AZ, CA, CO, MT, NM, ND, UT, WA, WY

About 80 percent of the coal mined in the United States is sent to electric power plants.

Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

73

Figure 30. Coal Shipments for U.S. Consumption by Supplying Areas and by Transportation Methods, 1993 (Million Short Tons)

WA MT ND SD NE IA MO MN VT OR CA NV ID UT WY WI MI OH WV VA NC AR MS NY PA ME NH MA RI CT NJ DE MD D.C.

R

O T W
AZ

KS CO

R T W O

IL

IN

R O T
AL LA

Western 358.4

OK NM

Interior 166.8
TX

W
GA

SC

FL

Transportation Method: R = Rail T = Truck W = Water O = Other

Appalachian 353.0

Supply Areas: Appalachian - AL, KY(E) MD, OH, PA, TN, VA, WV Interior - AR, IL, IN, IA, KS, KY(W), LA, MO, OK, TX Western - AK, AZ, CA, CO, MT, NM, ND, UT, WA, WY

"Other" includes tramway/conveyor, slurry pipeline (in Western), and unknown or not revealable methods.

Railroads are the foundation of the U.S. coal transportation system.

Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-6, “Coal Distribution Report.”

74

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 24. U.S. Coal Supply and Disposition, 1949-1993 (Million Short Tons)
Supply Changes in Stocks, Losses, and Unaccounted Fora 35.1 -37.3 -8.1 -1.4 2.8 2.8 10.3 0.5 -3.2 6.4 -9.0 1.5 6.2 3.3 -3.6 -9.3 -4.2 0.8 -23.5 4.1 2.2 -17.7 -2.0 -21.5 17.6 7.0 -26.5 -22.3 -19.2 -7.3 -36.6 -36.5 20.3 -25.6 31.1 -24.4 25.1 -2.7 -4.0 26.3 7.8 -30.5 -2.8 -6.4 47.7 Disposition

Production Underground 358.9 421.0 442.2 381.2 367.4 306.0 358.0 380.8 373.6 297.6 292.8 292.6 279.6 287.9 309.0 327.7 338.0 342.6 352.4 346.6 349.2 340.5 277.2 305.0 300.1 278.0 293.5 295.5 266.6 242.8 320.9 337.5 316.5 339.2 300.4 352.1 350.8 360.4 372.9 382.1 393.8 424.5 407.2 407.2 351.1

Year 1949 . . . . . . . . . 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
a

Surface 121.7 139.4 134.2 126.3 120.8 114.8 132.9 148.9 144.5 134.0 139.8 141.7 140.9 151.1 168.2 176.5 189.0 204.2 212.5 210.1 221.7 272.1 283.7 297.4 298.5 332.1 361.2 389.4 430.6 427.4 460.2 492.2 507.3 499.0 481.7 543.9 532.8 529.9 545.9 568.1 586.9 604.5 588.8 590.3 594.4

Total 480.6 560.4 576.3 507.4 488.2 420.8 490.8 529.8 518.0 431.6 432.7 434.3 420.4 439.0 477.2 504.2 527.0 546.8 564.9 556.7 571.0 612.7 560.9 602.5 598.6 610.0 654.6 684.9 697.2 670.2 781.1 829.7 823.8 838.1 782.1 895.9 883.6 890.3 918.8 950.3 980.7 1,029.1 996.0 997.5 945.4

Imports 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.1 * 0.1 * 0.1 2.1 0.9 1.2 1.6 3.0 2.1 1.2 1.0 0.7 1.3 1.3 2.0 2.2 1.7 2.1 2.9 2.7 3.4 3.8 7.3

Total 516.0 523.5 568.6 506.3 491.3 423.8 501.4 530.7 515.3 438.3 424.1 436.1 426.8 442.6 473.9 495.2 522.9 547.8 541.6 561.0 573.3 595.0 559.0 581.0 616.3 619.1 629.1 663.6 679.7 665.6 746.6 794.4 845.2 813.3 814.5 872.8 910.7 889.8 916.5 978.7 991.4 1,001.3 996.6 994.9 1,000.5

Exports 32.8 29.4 62.7 52.2 36.5 33.9 54.4 73.8 80.8 52.6 39.0 38.0 36.4 40.2 50.4 49.5 51.0 50.1 50.1 51.2 56.9 71.7 57.3 56.7 53.6 60.7 66.3 60.0 54.3 40.7 66.0 91.7 112.5 106.3 77.8 81.5 92.7 85.5 79.6 95.0 100.8 105.8 109.0 102.5 74.5

Consumption 483.2 494.1 505.9 454.1 454.8 389.9 447.0 456.9 434.5 385.7 385.1 398.1 390.4 402.3 423.5 445.7 472.0 497.7 491.4 509.8 516.4 523.2 501.6 524.3 562.6 558.4 562.6 603.8 625.3 625.2 680.5 702.7 732.6 706.9 736.7 791.3 818.0 804.2 836.9 883.7 889.7 895.5 887.6 892.4 925.9

Total 516.0 523.5 568.6 506.3 491.3 423.8 501.4 530.7 515.3 438.3 424.1 436.1 426.8 442.5 473.9 495.2 523.0 547.8 541.6 561.0 573.3 595.0 558.9 581.0 616.2 619.1 628.9 663.8 679.6 665.9 746.6 794.5 845.2 813.2 814.4 872.8 910.7 889.8 916.5 978.7 991.4 1,001.3 996.6 994.9 1,000.5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Balancing item between supply and disposition. *Less than 0.05 million short tons. Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Sources: 1949-1989: Energy Information Agency, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994); 1990: Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118; Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121(93) (Washington, DC, May 1994); Quarterly Coal Report January-March 1994, DOE/EIA-0121(94/1Q) (Washington, DC, August 1994); and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

75

Figure 31. U.S. Coal Supply and Disposition Patterns, 1993 120
110
Anthracite <1 Residential\ Commercial 1 Other 11 Undergr o un d 37 Truck 13
a

100 90 80 70
Percent
Lignite 10 Other Industry 8 Coke - 3 Other 42

Subbi tumino us 29

Water 16 Brazil 7 Belgium / Luxembourg Netherlands 7 Italy 9 Canada 12

60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Coal Rank M ining Method Domestic Transportation Domestic Consumption Exports B itumino us 61 Surface 63 Rail 60 Electric Power Plants 88

7

Japan 16

a

Tramway/Conveyor, slurry pipeline, and unknown or not revealable methods.

Most of U.S. coal production is surface-mined, shipped by railroad, and used by electric utilities.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994); Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121(93/4Q) (Washington, DC, May 1994); and Form EIA-6, “Coal Distribution Report.”

76

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 25. Year-End Stocks of U.S. Coal by End-Use Sector, 1949-1993 (Million Short Tons)
Industrial Year 1949 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
a b

Electric Utilities 22.1 31.8 38.5 41.5 45.6 46.1 41.4 48.8 53.1 51.0 52.1 51.7 50.1 50.4 50.6 53.9 54.5 53.9 71.0 65.5 61.9 71.9 77.8 99.7 87.0 83.5 110.7 117.4 133.2 128.2 159.7 183.0 168.9 181.1 155.6 179.7 156.4 161.8 170.8 146.5 135.9 156.2 157.9 154.1 111.3

Coke Plants 10.0 16.8 15.3 14.5 16.6 12.4 13.4 14.0 14.2 13.1 11.6 11.1 10.5 8.4 8.1 10.2 10.6 9.3 11.1 9.7 9.1 9.0 7.3 9.1 7.0 6.2 8.8 9.9 12.8 8.3 10.2 9.1 6.5 4.6 4.3 6.2 3.4 3.0 3.9 3.1 2.9 3.3 2.8 2.6 2.4

Other Industriala 16.1 26.2 26.2 24.7 22.8 16.4 15.9 17.4 15.5 13.7 13.6 11.6 11.9 12.0 12.3 12.2 13.1 12.2 12.3 11.7 10.8 11.8 5.6 7.6 10.4 6.6 8.5 7.1 11.1 9.0 11.8 12.0 9.9 9.5 8.7 11.3 10.4 10.4 10.8 8.8 7.4 8.7 7.1 7.0 6.7

Total 26.0 43.0 41.6 39.2 39.4 28.8 39.3 31.5 29.7 36.7 25.2 22.8 22.4 20.4 20.4 22.5 23.8 21.5 23.4 21.3 19.9 20.8 12.9 16.7 17.4 12.8 17.3 17.0 23.9 17.3 21.9 21.0 16.4 14.1 13.1 17.5 13.9 13.4 14.7 11.9 10.2 12.0 9.9 9.6 9.1

Residential and Commercialb 1.4 2.5 1.8 1.7 1.5 0.8 1.0 1.1 0.9 0.9 1.0 0.7 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.3 NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA NA

Total Consumer Stocks 49.5 77.3 81.8 82.4 86.6 75.7 71.7 81.3 83.7 78.7 78.4 75.2 73.0 71.3 71.5 76.7 78.6 75.6 94.6 87.0 81.9 93.0 91.0 116.8 104.6 96.6 128.3 134.7 157.3 145.9 182.0 204.0 185.3 195.3 168.7 197.2 170.2 175.2 185.5 158.4 146.1 168.2 167.7 163.7 120.5

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Includes transportation sector. Stocks at retail dealers. NA = Not available. Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Sources: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994); and Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121(93) (Washington, DC, May 1994).

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77

Table 26. U.S. Coke Supply and Disposition, 1949-1993 (Million Short Tons)
Supply Year 1949 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
a

Disposition Total 63.74 73.82 79.12 68.15 78.22 59.51 76.68 73.98 75.26 53.05 55.13 57.30 52.53 52.19 55.45 63.16 66.21 67.12 62.28 63.23 67.80 65.69 58.20 61.28 67.16 65.37 54.96 58.15 55.39 57.64 55.27 43.35 45.22 26.77 30.51 30.79 30.18 25.74 28.22 31.12 30.02 28.39 24.96 25.37 25.13 Exports 0.55 0.40 1.03 0.79 0.52 0.39 0.53 0.66 0.82 0.39 0.46 0.35 0.45 0.36 0.45 0.52 0.83 1.10 0.71 0.79 1.63 2.48 1.51 1.23 1.40 1.28 1.27 1.32 1.24 0.69 1.44 2.07 1.17 0.99 0.67 1.05 1.12 1.00 0.57 1.09 1.09 0.57 0.74 0.64 0.84 Consumptionb 63.19 73.42 78.09 67.36 77.70 59.12 76.15 73.32 74.43 52.66 54.67 56.95 52.09 51.82 55.00 62.64 65.38 66.02 61.57 62.44 66.17 63.21 56.69 60.05 65.77 64.09 53.69 56.83 54.14 56.95 53.83 41.28 44.05 25.78 29.85 29.74 29.06 24.73 27.65 30.02 28.93 27.81 24.22 24.73 24.30 Total 63.74 73.82 79.12 68.15 78.22 59.51 76.68 73.98 75.26 53.05 55.13 57.30 52.53 52.19 55.45 63.16 66.21 67.12 62.28 63.23 67.80 65.69 58.20 61.28 67.16 65.37 54.96 58.15 55.39 57.64 55.27 43.35 45.22 26.77 30.52 30.79 30.18 25.73 28.22 31.11 30.02 28.38 24.96 25.37 25.14

Production 63.64 72.72 79.33 68.25 78.84 59.66 75.30 74.48 75.95 53.60 55.86 57.23 51.71 51.91 54.28 62.15 66.85 67.40 64.58 63.65 64.76 66.53 57.44 60.51 64.33 61.58 57.21 58.33 53.51 49.01 52.94 46.13 42.79 28.12 25.81 30.40 28.44 24.92 26.30 28.95 28.05 27.62 24.05 23.41 23.18

Imports 0.28 0.44 0.16 0.31 0.16 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.09 0.17 0.15 0.17 0.19 1.08 3.54 1.82 1.31 1.83 5.72 3.97 0.66 0.53 0.12 0.04 0.58 0.58 0.33 0.92 2.69 2.31 0.77 1.10 1.74 1.53

Stock Changea -0.18 0.66 -0.37 -0.42 -0.78 -0.27 1.25 -0.63 -0.81 -0.67 -0.66 -0.06 0.70 0.14 1.02 0.91 -0.73 -0.38 -2.39 -0.52 2.87 -0.99 0.59 0.59 1.76 0.25 -4.07 -1.49 0.05 2.91 -1.65 -3.44 1.90 -1.47 4.67 -0.19 1.16 0.49 1.00 -0.52 -0.34 * -0.19 0.22 0.42

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Negative numbers denote a net addition to stocks or a reduction in supply. Positive numbers denote a net withdrawal from stocks resulting in an addition to supply. Includes producer and distributor stocks beginning in 1979. b Apparent consumption *Less than 0.01 million short tons. Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Sources: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994); and Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121(93) (Washington, DC, May 1994).

78

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Table 27. U.S. Coal Consumption by End-Use Sector, 1949-1993 (Million Short Tons)
Industry and Miscellaneous Other Industry and Miscellaneous 121.2 120.6 128.7 117.1 117.0 98.2 110.1 114.3 106.5 100.5 92.7 96.0 95.9 97.1 101.9 103.1 105.6 108.7 101.8 100.4 93.1 90.2 75.6 72.9 68.0 64.9 63.6 61.8 61.5 63.1 67.7 60.3 67.4 64.1 66.0 73.7 75.4 75.6 75.2 76.3 76.1 76.3 75.4 74.0 74.9 Residential and Commercial 116.5 114.6 101.5 92.3 79.2 69.1 68.4 64.2 49.0 47.9 40.8 40.9 37.3 36.5 31.5 27.2 25.7 25.6 22.1 20.0 18.9 16.1 15.2 11.7 11.1 11.4 9.4 8.9 9.0 9.5 8.4 6.5 7.4 8.2 8.4 9.1 7.8 7.7 6.9 7.1 6.2 6.7 6.1 6.2 6.2

Year 1949 . . . . . . . . . . . . 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
a

Electric Utilities 84.0 91.9 105.8 107.1 115.9 118.4 143.8 158.3 160.8 155.7 168.4 176.7 182.2 193.3 211.3 225.4 244.8 266.5 274.2 297.8 310.6 320.2 327.3 351.8 389.2 391.8 406.0 448.4 477.1 481.2 527.1 569.3 596.8 593.7 625.2 664.4 693.8 685.1 717.9 758.4 766.9 773.5 772.3 779.9 813.5

Coke Plants 91.4 104.0 113.7 97.8 113.1 85.6 107.7 106.3 108.4 76.8 79.6 81.4 74.2 74.7 78.1 89.2 95.3 96.4 92.8 91.3 93.4 96.5 83.2 87.7 94.1 90.2 83.6 84.7 77.7 71.4 77.4 66.7 61.0 40.9 37.0 44.0 41.1 36.0 37.0 41.9 40.5 38.9 33.9 32.4 31.3

Total 212.6 224.6 242.4 214.9 230.1 183.9 217.8 220.6 214.9 177.4 172.3 177.4 170.1 171.7 180.0 192.4 200.8 205.1 194.6 191.6 186.6 186.6 158.9 160.6 162.1 155.1 147.2 146.5 139.2 134.5 145.1 127.0 128.4 105.0 103.0 117.8 116.4 111.8 112.1 118.2 117.5 115.2 109.3 106.4 106.2

Transportation 70.2 63.0 56.2 39.8 29.6 18.6 17.0 13.8 9.8 4.7 3.6 3.0 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 * * *
a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a

Total 483.2 494.1 505.9 454.1 454.8 389.9 447.0 456.9 434.5 385.7 385.1 398.1 390.4 402.3 423.5 445.7 472.0 497.7 491.4 509.8 516.4 523.2 501.6 524.3 562.6 558.4 562.6 603.8 625.3 625.2 680.5 702.7 732.6 706.9 736.7 791.3 818.0 804.3 836.9 883.7 889.7 895.5 887.6 892.4 925.9

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

*Less than 0.05 million short tons.

Included in the Other Industry and Miscellaneous category.

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Sources: 1949-1989: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(90) (Washington, DC, July 1994); 1990 on: Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121(93) (Washington, DC, May 1991); and Quarterly Coal Report January-March 1994, DOE/EIA-0121(94/1Q) (Washington, DC, August 1994).

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79

Figure 32. U.S. Coal Consumption by End-Use Sector, 1950-1993

1,000

800

Electric Utilities

Million Short Tons

600

400

200

Residential/ Commercial

Other Industry

Coke Plants

0 1950 1960 1970 Years 1980 1990 1993

The pattern of U.S. coal consumption has changed significantly since 1950. Coal consumption has risen mainly because more coal is used to generate electricity.

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93)(Washington, DC, July 1994); Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121(93/4Q)(Washington, DC, May 1994); and Quarterly Coal Report January-March 1994, DOE/EIA-0121(94/1Q) (Washington, DC, August 1994).

80

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 28. U.S. Coal Consumption by Census Division and State, 1989-1993 (Thousand Short Tons)
Census Division and State New England Total . . . . . Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . New Hampshire . . . . . . . . Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . . Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . Middle Atlantic Total . . . . New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . New York . . . . . . . . . . . . Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . East North Central Total . Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . West North Central Total . Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . . Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . North Dakota . . . . . . . . . . South Dakota . . . . . . . . . South Atlantic Total . . . . Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . District of Columbia . . . . . Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . North Carolina . . . . . . . . . South Carolina . . . . . . . . . Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . West Virginia . . . . . . . . . . East South Central Total . Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . West South Central Total Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mountain Total . . . . . . . . Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nevada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pacific Total . . . . . . . . . . Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . California . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Washington . . . . . . . . . . . Unknown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1989 7,021 890 271 4,641 1,183 27 9 76,177 3,545 14,105 58,526 205,586 32,374 57,388 34,885 61,016 19,922 114,245 17,126 14,963 18,279 26,348 7,587 27,401 2,541 153,008 2,357 60 25,447 27,918 11,541 22,239 11,981 14,279 37,186 87,655 27,537 32,792 3,831 23,496 130,093 11,547 12,471 15,086 90,989 106,212 16,871 16,393 533 10,458 7,667 15,295 15,044 23,952 9,120 299 2,551 32 396 5,843 581 889,699 1990 6,771 971 265 4,337 1,186 5 8 73,812 3,029 13,465 57,319 209,619 33,904 61,701 34,713 59,205 20,097 116,268 17,929 15,175 18,377 25,836 8,266 28,114 2,571 149,455 2,293 69 25,233 30,067 11,193 21,150 11,447 13,105 34,896 91,126 27,640 34,449 4,159 24,878 131,478 12,092 12,547 15,423 91,415 107,158 16,419 16,710 549 9,676 7,442 15,111 15,738 25,514 9,792 784 2,899 28 934 5,147 0 895,480 1991 7,012 856 374 4,451 1,315 4 12 70,594 2,326 13,338 54,931 208,583 34,677 60,790 33,879 58,578 20,659 116,707 18,741 14,881 16,993 25,773 8,859 28,597 2,863 144,073 2,186 66 26,004 26,957 10,709 20,877 11,451 13,980 31,843 90,785 29,349 34,517 3,812 23,107 133,635 12,261 12,965 16,345 92,064 105,177 16,805 16,218 673 10,549 8,091 12,858 14,834 25,150 11,055 802 2,816 37 1,940 5,461 0 887,621 1992 7,298 849 856 4,257 1,311 5 20 71,418 2,348 12,996 56,074 200,660 31,599 58,765 31,554 58,671 20,071 115,505 17,992 14,227 16,924 25,180 8,212 30,301 2,670 144,178 1,770 50 26,368 25,481 9,713 24,075 11,285 13,418 32,019 93,804 31,510 34,704 3,485 24,106 135,210 12,538 13,674 17,430 91,568 112,163 17,915 16,696 535 11,040 8,088 14,832 15,719 27,339 12,186 792 2,821 47 2,124 6,402 0 892,421 1993 6,485 788 449 3,811 1,428 3 6 70,389 2,353 11,878 56,158 210,632 38,135 60,353 32,217 59,031 20,887 120,940 19,188 17,386 18,321 23,381 9,666 30,302 2,696 150,580 2,446 51 26,430 27,081 10,268 25,760 12,914 13,584 32,046 104,027 33,047 39,095 4,030 27,854 140,797 11,447 13,676 18,866 96,809 110,673 18,991 17,070 528 9,247 7,806 15,012 15,848 26,171 11,422 863 2,453 73 2,099 5,934 0 925,944

U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of Independent rounding. Sources: Energy Information Administration, Quarterly Coal Report, DOE/EIA-0121 (October-December issues); and Quarterly Coal Report JanuaryMarch 1994, DOE/EIA-0121(94/1Q) (Washington, DC, August 1994).

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81

Table 29. U.S. Coal Consumption by End-Use Sector and by Census Division and State, 1993 (Thousand Short Tons)
Census Division and State New England Total . . . . . Connecticut . . . . . . . . . . . Maine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Massachusetts . . . . . . . . . New Hampshire . . . . . . . . Rhode Island . . . . . . . . . . Vermont . . . . . . . . . . . . . Middle Atlantic Total . . . . New Jersey . . . . . . . . . . . New York . . . . . . . . . . . . Pennsylvania . . . . . . . . . . East North Central Total . Illinois . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Indiana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Michigan . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ohio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wisconsin . . . . . . . . . . . . West North Central Total . Iowa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Minnesota . . . . . . . . . . . . Missouri . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nebraska . . . . . . . . . . . . North Dakota . . . . . . . . . . South Dakota . . . . . . . . . South Atlantic Total . . . . Delaware . . . . . . . . . . . . . District of Columbia . . . . . Florida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Georgia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Maryland . . . . . . . . . . . . . North Carolina . . . . . . . . . South Carolina . . . . . . . . . Virginia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . West Virginia . . . . . . . . . . East South Central Total . Alabama . . . . . . . . . . . . . Kentucky . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mississippi . . . . . . . . . . . . Tennessee . . . . . . . . . . . West South Central Total Arkansas . . . . . . . . . . . . . Louisiana . . . . . . . . . . . . Oklahoma . . . . . . . . . . . . Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mountain Total . . . . . . . . Arizona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Colorado . . . . . . . . . . . . . Idaho . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Montana . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nevada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . Utah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pacific Total . . . . . . . . . . Alaska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . California . . . . . . . . . . . . . Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oregon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Washington . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electric Utilities 5,936 745 0 3,852 1,339 0 0 51,079 2,123 8,699 40,257 179,833 31,744 48,836 28,479 51,456 19,049 107,584 16,623 17,226 16,844 21,945 9,297 23,290 2,360 132,885 2,223 0 25,108 25,339 9,521 23,055 10,410 9,447 27,782 90,365 27,533 35,264 3,767 23,801 134,009 11,116 13,089 17,668 92,135 104,093 18,316 16,252 0 8,869 7,608 14,942 13,995 24,111 7,924 298 0 0 1,981 5,646 813,508 Coke Plants 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 W 0 W * 11,643 W 6,591 W 2,892 W W 0 0 0 W 0 0 0 W 0 0 0 0 W 0 0 W W W 3,206 W 0 W 0 0 0 0 0 W 0 0 0 0 0 0 W 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 31,323 Other Industrial 647 W W W W W W W W * * 17,699 3,970 4,587 3,230 4,100 1,811 12,753 2,494 137 1,370 1,177 W W W W W 0 1,307 1,720 731 2,476 2,395 2,863 2,406 W 2,268 2,392 W 3,942 6,780 330 W W 4,667 5,163 674 780 486 W W W 727 1,873 2,677 2 2,311 W W 174 74,892 Residential and Commercial 102 W W W W W W 1,498 W W 1,257 1,458 W 339 W 584 W W 70 23 107 W W W W 904 W 51 16 22 W 229 109 W W 417 40 W W W 8 1 W W 6 W 1 38 43 W W W W 187 821 563 142 W W 114 6,221 Total 6,485 788 449 3,811 1,428 3 6 70,383 2,353 11,878 56,158 210,632 38,135 60,353 32,217 59,031 20,897 120,940 19,188 17,386 18,321 23,381 9,666 30,302 2,696 150,580 2,446 51 26,430 27,081 10,268 25,760 12,914 13,584 32,046 104,027 33,047 39,095 4,030 27,854 140,797 11,447 13,676 18,866 96,809 110,673 18,991 17,070 528 9,247 7,806 15,012 15,848 26,171 11,422 863 2,453 73 2,099 5,934 925,944

U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
*

Less than 0.05 million short tons. W = Withheld to avoid disclosure of individual company data. Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of Independent rounding. Sources: Energy Information Administration, Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121(93/4Q) (Washington, DC, May 1994); and Quarterly Coal Report January-March 1994, DOE/EIA-0121(94/1Q) (Washington, DC, August 1994).

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Figure 33. Coal-Fired Generating Units: Number, Generating Capability, and Electricity Generation in 1992 as Compared with Other Energy Sources
10,268
100

Other* 105 Nuclear 109

695 Nuclear 99 H ydr o 93

Other* 4

2,797

Other* 10

Nuclear 619 Hyd ro 240 Gas 264 Oil 89

80

H ydr o 3,497

60

Gas 127 Gas 2,088 Oil 72

Percent
40

Oil 3,231
20

Coal 301

Coal 1,576

Coal 1,238
0 Number of Units (December 31, 1992)
*Geothermal, wood, wind, waste, refuse, and solar.

Summer Capability (Billion Watts) (December 31, 1992)

Electricity Generation in 1992 (Billion Killowatthours)

For their number and capability, coal-fired generating units account for a large share of electricity generation. This is because they are mostly base-load units, operating continuously and supplying electricity at a generally constant rate.

Note: Total may not equal sum of components due to independent rounding. Sources: Energy Information Administration, Inventory of Power Plants in the United States 1992, DOE/EIA-0095(92) (Washington, DC, October 1993); and Monthly Energy Review July 1994, DOE/EIA-0035(94/O7) (Washington, DC, July 1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

83

Figure 34. Percentage of Total Electricity Generating Capability Using Coal, by State, December 31, 1992 (Billion Short Tons)

WA 6 OR 5 ID 0

MT 46

ND 86 WY 95 SD 18 NE 56 CO 75 KS 53 OK 38

MN 65 WI 68 IA 73 MO 70 IL 46 MI 54 IN 94 PA 52 OH 85 WV KY 99 92

ME 0 VT NY 0 13 NH 23 MA 18 RI 0 CT 6 NJ 12 DE 45 MD 43 D.C.

CA 0

NV 53

UT 89

VA 31 NC 62

AZ 34

NM 77

AR 40

TN 53 MS 32 AL 58 GA 61 SC 29

TX 31 AK 3

LA 20 FL 30 Over 75%

HI 0

50% - 75% 10% - 49% 0% - 9%

At the end of 1992, coal was the primary fuel for 300,547 megawatts of electric generating capability, or 43 percent of the U.S. total of 695,059 megawatts.

Source: Energy Information Administration, Inventory of Power Plants in the United States 1992, DOE/EIA-009(92) (Washington, DC, October 1993).

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 30. U.S. Coal Prices, 1949-1993 (Dollars per Short Ton)
Bituminous Coala and Lignite F.O.B. Mines Year 1949 . . . . . . . . . . 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
a b b

Anthracite At Plants and Mines Current 8.90 9.34 9.94 9.58 9.87 8.76 8.00 8.33 9.11 9.14 8.55 8.01 8.26 7.99 8.64 8.93 8.51 8.08 8.15 8.78 9.91 11.03 12.08 12.40 13.65 22.19 32.26 33.92 34.86 35.25 41.06 42.51 44.28 49.85 52.29 48.22 45.80 44.12 43.65 44.16 42.93 39.40 36.34 34.24 E 37.80
c d

All Coal CIF Electric Utility Power Plants Current NA NA NA 6.61 6.61 6.31 6.07 6.32 6.64 6.58 6.37 6.26 6.20 6.02 5.86 5.74 5.71 5.76 5.85 5.93 6.13 7.13 8.00 8.44 9.01 15.46 17.63 18.38 20.37 23.75 26.15 28.76 32.32 34.91 34.99 35.12 34.53 33.30 31.83 30.64 30.15 30.45 30.02 29.36 P 28.64 1987 Dollarse NA NA NA 30.74 30.05 28.42 26.51 26.78 27.21 26.43 24.88 24.08 23.57 22.38 21.54 20.72 20.11 19.59 19.31 18.65 18.35 20.26 21.56 21.75 21.82 34.43 35.83 35.14 36.44 39.39 39.92 40.11 40.96 41.66 40.13 38.59 36.58 34.37 31.83 29.49 27.79 26.88 25.51 24.24 23.06

Current 4.88 4.84 4.92 4.90 4.92 4.52 4.50 4.82 5.08 4.86 4.77 4.69 4.58 4.48 4.39 4.45 4.44 4.54 4.62 4.67 4.99 6.26 7.07 7.66 8.53 15.75 19.23 19.43 19.82 21.76 23.65 24.52 26.29 27.14 25.85 25.51 25.10 23.70 23.00 22.00 21.76 21.71 21.45 20.98 E 20.56

1987 Dollarse 24.52 23.96 23.10 22.79 22.36 20.36 19.65 20.42 20.82 19.52 18.63 18.04 17.41 16.65 16.14 16.06 15.63 15.44 15.25 14.69 14.94 17.78 19.06 19.74 20.65 35.08 39.09 37.15 35.46 36.12 36.11 34.20 33.32 32.39 29.64 28.03 26.59 24.46 23.00 21.17 20.06 19.16 18.22 17.32 16.55

1987 Dollarse 44.72 46.24 46.67 44.56 44.86 39.46 34.93 35.30 37.34 36.71 33.40 30.81 31.41 29.70 31.76 32.24 29.96 27.48 26.90 27.61 29.67 31.34 32.56 31.96 33.05 49.42 65.57 64.86 62.36 58.46 62.69 59.29 56.12 59.49 59.97 52.99 48.52 45.53 43.65 42.50 39.57 34.77 30.88 28.27 30.43

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.. .. .. .

Includes subbituminous coal. Free on board. c For 1949-1979, prices are f.o.b. preparation plants. For 1979 forward, prices are f.o.b. mines. d Cost, insurance and freight. e Calculated by using gross domestic product implicit price deflators. P = Preliminary data. E = Estimate. NA = Not available. Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994). Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference 85

Table 31. Average Mine Price of U.S. Coal by Mining Method, 1980-1993 (Dollars per Short Ton)
Year 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Underground 33.50 35.78 35.78 34.47 33.36 32.91 30.33 29.63 28.97 28.44 28.58 28.56 27.83 26.92 Surface 18.78 20.60 21.46 20.68 20.59 20.13 19.34 18.58 17.43 17.38 16.98 16.60 16.34 15.67 Total 24.65 26.40 27.25 25.98 25.61 25.20 23.79 23.07 22.07 21.82 21.76 21.49 21.03 19.85

Note: Average mine price is in current dollars. Sources: Energy Information Administration, Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

Table 32. Average Mine Price of U.S. Coal by Rank, 1980-1993 (Dollars per Short Ton)
Year 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
a

Lignite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . W W W W 10.45 10.68 10.64 10.85 10.06 9.91 10.13 10.89 10.81 11.11

Subbituminous Coal 11.08 12.18 13.37 13.03 12.41 12.57 12.26 11.32 10.45 10.16 9.70 9.68 9.68 9.33

Bituminous Coal 29.17 31.51 32.15 31.11 30.63 30.78 28.84 28.19 27.66 27.40 27.43 27.49 26.78 26.15

Anthracitea 42.51 44.28 49.85 59.29 48.22 45.80 44.12 43.65 44.16 42.93 39.40 36.34 34.24 32.94

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Produced in Pennsylvania. Note: Average mine price is in current dollars. W = Withheld to avoid disclosure of individual company data. Sources: Energy Information Administration, Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0118, various issues; and Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 33. Average Mine Price of U.S. Coal by State and Mining Method, 1993 (Dollars Per Short Ton)
Type of Mining Underground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.00 ---20.53 25.54 W --25.07 25.42 23.84 -W -W W -30.73 W 27.35 36.02 27.29 W -20.81 27.26 -28.54 W 26.92

Table 34. Foreign Direct Investment in U.S. Coal, and Share of Total U.S. Coal Production, 1980-1992
Foreign Direct Investment in U.S. Coala (billion dollars)b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.5 1.1 1.2 1.3 2.6 2.9 3.5 3.3 5.3 0.9 0.8 1.3 1.6 Foreign Share of U.S. Coal Production (percent) 3.8 12.9 16.6 16.5 17.2 16.8 16.5 19.8 20.6 21.2 24.7 24.0 26.0

State Alabama . . . . . . . Alaska . . . . . . . . . Arizona . . . . . . . . Arkansas . . . . . . . Colorado . . . . . . . Illinois . . . . . . . . . Indiana . . . . . . . . . Iowa . . . . . . . . . . Kansas . . . . . . . . Kentucky Total . . . Eastern . . . . . . . . Western . . . . . . . Louisiana . . . . . . . Maryland . . . . . . . Missouri . . . . . . . . Montana . . . . . . . . New Mexico . . . . . North Dakota . . . . Ohio . . . . . . . . . . Oklahoma . . . . . . Pennsylvania Total Anthracite . . . . . . Bituminous . . . . . Tennessee . . . . . . Texas . . . . . . . . . Utah . . . . . . . . . . Virginia . . . . . . . . Washington . . . . . West Virginia . . . . Wyoming . . . . . . .

Surface 42.91 W W W 20.10 24.18 W W W 24.35 25.63 20.45 W W W W W 7.63 26.51 W 25.09 32.71 23.55 W 12.87 -25.29 W 25.57 W 15.67

Total 42.34 W W W 20.35 25.27 22.89 W W 24.77 25.50 22.36 W 25.21 W 11.05 22.96 7.63 28.04 24.91 26.50 32.94 26.03 27.23 12.87 20.81 26.80 W 27.58 7.32 19.85 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992
a

Year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Foreign Direct Investment is the value of foreign parent companies’ net equity in, and outstanding loans to, affiliates in the United States at the end of the year. A U.S. affiliate is a U.S business enterprise in which a single foreign direct investor owns at least 10 percent of the voting securities, or the equivalent. b Current dollars. Source: Energy Information Administration, Profiles of Foreign Direct Investment in U.S. Energy 1992, DOE/EIA-0466(92) (Washington, DC, May 1994).

U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

-- = Not applicable. W = Withheld to avoid disclosure of individual company data. Notes: Average mine price is in current dollars. Source: Energy Information Administration, Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93) (Washington, DC, December 1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

87

Table 35. U.S. Coal Mining Cost Comparisons by Mining Methods (January 1989 Dollars per Short Ton of Raw Coal)
Underground Room and Pillar Continuous Mining At 15 Percent DCFRORa Capital Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . Return of equity capital . . . . 15 percent return on capital . Mine operating costs . . . . . . . . Labor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equipment and supplies . . . . Land Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Taxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . Federal income . . . . . State income . . . . . . . Property and ad valorem . . . . . . . . . Severance and excise levy . . . . . . . . . . . . Black lung . . . . . . . . . Reclamation . . . . . . . ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... ..... Minimum 1.42 0.59 0.65 11.50 7.07 2.99 0.04 0.92 0.19 0.03 0.01 0.00 0.58 0.08 15.81 Maximum 4.18 2.68 1.50 14.98 11.99 5.28 1.65 2.31 0.44 0.08 0.10 0.85 0.74 0.10 21.90 Conventional Mining Minimum 0.61 0.17 0.44 7.48 4.07 3.41 1.62 1.96 0.09 0.01 0.00 0.61 0.93 0.13 13.45 Maximum 1.11 0.49 0.62 12.57 7.65 4.92 3.40 2.23 0.16 0.03 0.01 0.78 1.10 0.15 17.34 Longwall Mining Minimum 1.97 1.42 0.55 9.52 6.57 2.96 0.00 1.58 0.38 0.07 0.02 0.19 0.59 0.09 15.12 Maximum 4.31 2.02 2.29 16.51 9.67 7.61 1.16 2.71 0.61 0.14 0.07 1.04 0.74 0.11 23.15 Few Flat-Lying Thick Coalbeds Minimum 0.72 0.41 0.31 2.72 1.35 1.37 0.22 1.35 0.09 0.00 0.16 0.47 0.24 0.35 5.52 Surface Multiple Steeply Dipping Coalbeds

Maximum (one mine) 1.00 0.63 0.37 3.26 1.72 1.68 0.78 1.64 0.10 0.02 0.37 0.57 0.26 0.35 6.30 3.91 2.64 1.27 9.89 4.92 4.97 1.86 3.37 0.28 0.00 0.26 1.83 0.61 0.39 19.36

Total mining costs . . . . . . . .

a Discounted cash flow rate of return. Note: Annual production capacity by mining method are as follow, in million short tons: continuous, 0.4-0.9; conventional, 0.4-1.6; longwall, 1.1-2.3; surface, flat-lying thick coalbeds, 3.5-21.03; multiple steeply dipping coalbed, 16.5. The sum of line items may not match totals because line items and totals may be from different mines. Source: U.S Department of Interior, Bureau of Mines, A Cost Comparison of Selected Coal Mines from Australia, Canada, Colombia, South Africa, and the United States, Special Publication (August 1993).

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 36. Quality and Cost of Coal Receipts of U.S. Electric Utilities of 50 Megawatts or Larger Nameplate Capacity by Coal Rank, 1990-1993
Average Quality Receipts (thousand short tons) Sulfur (percent by weight) Sulfur (pounds per million Btu) Ash (percent by weight) Average Delivered Costa

Coal Rank 1990 Anthraciteb . . . Bituminous . . . Subbituminous Lignite . . . . . . Total . . . . . . 1991 Anthraciteb . . . Bituminous . . . Subbituminous Lignite . . . . . . Total . . . . . . 1992 Anthraciteb . . . Bituminous . . . Subbituminous Lignite . . . . . . Total . . . . . . . 1993 Anthraciteb . . . Bituminous . . . Subbituminous Lignite . . . . . . Total . . . . . .
a b

Btu (per pound)

(cents per million Btu)

(dollars per short ton)

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

753 477,782 232,660 75,432 786,627

8,070 11,945 8,741 6,433 10,465

0.71 1.86 0.43 0.92 1.35

0.90 1.58 0.50 1.46 1.25

32.7 10.5 7.2 14.0 9.9

97.7 153.8 133.5 98.3 145.5

15.77 36.75 23.34 12.65 30.45

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

723 450,462 239,929 78,810 769,923

7,961 11,964 8,722 6,372 10,378

0.64 1.84 0.42 0.95 1.30

0.82 1.56 0.48 1.51 1.22

33.4 10.3 6.9 14.9 9.8

94.1 153.2 132.3 104.9 144.7

14.98 36.66 23.08 13.37 30.02

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

503 453,732 241,291 80,438 775,963

8,470 11,987 8,754 6,346 10,395

0.67 1.81 0.43 0.97 1.29

0.81 1.53 0.49 1.55 1.21

32.0 10.2 7.0 14.6 9.7

93.7 149.6 128.5 105.4 141.2

15.88 35.86 22.49 13.38 29.36

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

. . . . .

392 422,690 265,180 80,890 769,152

8,267 12,042 8,763 6,374 10,315

0.69 1.71 0.41 0.94 1.18

0.84 1.44 0.47 1.51 1.11

33.0 10.2 7.0 14.4 9.6

91.1 147.6 126.5 103.9 138.5

15.05 35.55 22.17 13.25 28.58

Current dollars. Includes culm and silt. Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: Energy Information Administration, Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Utility Plants 1993, DOE/EIA-0191(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994).

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89

Table 37. Cost of Contract and Spot Coal Receipts at U.S. Electric Utilities of 50 Megawatts of Larger Nameplate Capacity, 1981-1993
Contract Receipts (million short tons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500.9 540.6 523.6 584.9 592.4 601.0 610.2 627.8 620.9 648.6 655.5 649.5 616.0 Cost (dollars per short ton) 31.34 34.63 35.21 35.06 34.63 33.51 32.01 30.88 30.38 30.74 30.55 29.89 28.93 Receipts (million short tons) 75.5 57.0 69.2 99.3 74.3 86.0 111.1 100.0 132.3 138.0 114.5 126.5 153.2 Spot Cost (dollars per short ton) 38.79 37.60 33.34 35.49 33.73 31.81 30.86 29.30 29.07 29.11 27.02 26.64 27.19 Average Cost (dollars per short ton) 32.32 34.91 34.99 35.12 34.53 33.30 31.83 30.64 30.15 30.45 30.02 29.36 28.58

Year 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Note: Cost is in current dollars. Source: Energy Information Administration, Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Utility Plants 1993, DOE/EIA-0191(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994) and previous issues.

90

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 38. U.S. Coal Receipts and Price by Sulfur Content at Electric Utility Plants, by State of Origin and Imports, 1993
≤ 0.60 lbs Sulfur per MM Btu Quantity (thousand short tons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5,038 12,122 17,761 25 538 0 0 14,980 0 8 0 16,906 9,206 0 2 2 1,390 128 0 15,091 4,213 19 25,295 189,065 3,816 315,605 Cents per MM Btu 252 111 139 161 139 --161 -191 -168 157 -138 43 163 130 -119 169 127 169 126 153 140 0.61-1.67 lbs Sulfur per MM Btu Quantity (thousand short tons) 11,102 0 292 10,511 2,594 0 0 69,812 2,662 2,964 0 16,996 17,894 25,227 1,794 1 28,885 1,678 30,763 9 12,388 4,545 33,775 12,792 811 287,494 Cents per MM Btu 178 -90 151 121 --156 139 141 -97 141 74 120 23 145 139 112 82 161 138 148 95 153 140 > 1.67 lbs. Sulfur per MM Btu Quantity (thousand short tons) 599 0 0 29,842 19,784 18 326 34,963 441 12 330 0 0 523 26,471 35 14,863 162 21,075 0 103 0 16,370 0 0 165,919 Cents per MM Btu 143 --151 123 175 130 122 142 111 206 --77 143 110 127 110 123 -125 -142 --134 Quantity (thousand short tons) 16,739 12,122 18,053 40,378 22,916 18 326 119,755 3,103 2,984 330 33,901 27,099 25,750 28,267 38 45,138 1,968 51,839 15,100 16,704 4,564 75,440 201,858 4,628 769,018 Total Cents per MM Btu 200 111 138 151 123 175 130 147 139 141 206 134 147 74 142 106 140 136 116 119 163 138 154 124 153 139 Lbs. Sulfur per MM Btu 0.98 0.46 0.40 2.24 2.23 3.11 2.93 1.37 1.12 1.33 4.21 0.57 0.70 1.15 2.81 2.68 1.54 1.07 1.66 0.41 0.82 0.96 1.13 0.42 0.54 1.14

State Alabama . . . Arizona . . . . Colorado . . . Illinois . . . . . Indiana . . . . . Iowa . . . . . . Kansas . . . . Kentucky . . . Louisiana . . . Maryland . . . Missouri . . . . Montana . . . . New Mexico . North Dakota Ohio . . . . . . Oklahoma . . Pennsylvania Tennessee . . Texas . . . . . Utah . . . . . . Virginia . . . . Washington . West Virginia Wyoming . . .

Imports . . . . . . U.S. Total . . . .

-- = Not applicable. Notes: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. MM Btu = million British thermal units. Source: Energy Information Administration, Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121(93/4Q) (Washington, DC, May 1994).

Table 39. U.S. Electricity Generation by Energy Source, Selected Years, 1980, 1985, 1990-1993 (Billion Kilowatthours)
Energy Source Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . Natural Gas . . . . . . Petroleum . . . . . . . Nuclear Power . . . . Hydroelectric Power Geothermal Energy . Othera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1980 1,162 346 246 251 276 5
b

1985 1,402 292 100 384 281 9 1 2,470

1990 1,560 264 117 577 280 9 2 2,808

1991 1,551 264 111 613 276 8 2 2,825

1992 1,576 264 89 619 240 8 2 2,797

1993 1,639 259 100 610 265 8 2 2,883

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a b

2,286

Wood, waste, wind, photovoltaic, and solar. Less than 1 billion kilowatthours. Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: Energy Information Administration, Monthly Energy Review June 1994, DOE/EIA-0035(94-06) (Washington, DC, June 1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

91

Table 40. Major U.S. Coal-Carrying Railroad Systems, 1993
Coal Originateda (million short tons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148.8 148.2 110.4 41.4 22.7 17.1 15.8 14.1 9.6 528.1 5.5 533.6

Railroad System Burlington Northern Railroad Company . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CSX Transportation . . . . . . . . . . Norfolk Southern Corporation . . . Consolidated Rail Corporation . . . Denver, Rio Grand & Western . . . Illinois Central Railroad Company Union Pacific Railroad Company . Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe . . . Soo Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Percent of Total 27.9 27.8 20.7 7.8 4.3 3.2 3.0 2.6 1.8 99.0 1.0 100.0

Top Nine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Others . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

a “Originated” refers to coal that is loaded for the first time and begins its journey on a particular railroad. Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: Association of American Railroads, Freight Commodity Statistics 1993.

Table 41. U.S. Rail Transportation of Coal, 1980-1993
Tons Originateda (million short tons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522 528 524 494 567 538 518 523 543 551 579 560 554 534 Coal Revenue (million dollars) 4,956 5,977 6,307 5,969 6,965 6,556 6,089 6,096 6,430 6,581 6,954 6,903 6,717 6,481 Coal as Percent of Total Traffic Tons 35.0 36.3 41.0 38.2 39.6 40.8 39.6 38.1 37.8 39.3 40.7 40.5 39.6 38.2 Revenue 18.4 20.2 23.8 22.4 23.3 23.2 22.4 22.1 21.7 22.4 23.4 23.5 22.6 21.4

Year 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993
a

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

“Originated” refers to coal that is loaded for the first time and begins its journey on a particular railroad. Note: Revenue is in current dollars. Sources: Association of American Railroads, Economics and Finance Department, Railroad Ten-Year Trends, Volume No. 3 (1986), Railroad Ten-Year Trends, Volume No. 10 (1993), and Freight Commodity Statistics 1993.

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 42. Coal Handled and Revenue Received by Major U.S. Coal-Carrying Railroads, 1993
Coal Originateda Amount (million short tons) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148.8 148.2 110.4 41.4 22.7 17.1 15.8 14.1 9.6 Share of All Commodities (percent) 55.2 49.6 52.5 32.8 84.3 34.6 10.4 17.8 27.5 Coal Revenues Share of All Commodities (percent) 32.0 29.9 32.9 14.3 40.1 12.7 16.8 8.7 9.1

Railroad Burlington Northern . . . . . . . . . CSX Corporation . . . . . . . . . . Norfolk Southern . . . . . . . . . . . Consolidated Rail Corporation . Denver, Rio Grande & Western Illinois Central Gulf . . . . . . . . . Union Pacific . . . . . . . . . . . . . Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe . Soo Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Amount (million dollars) 1,575.9 1,464.8 1,257.8 491.7 144.2 71.1 872.9 223.3 60.4

a “Originated” refers to coal that is loaded for the first time and begins its journey on a particular railroad. Source: Association of American Railroads, Freight Commodity Statistics 1993.

Table 43. U.S. Waterborne Traffic: Coal and Coal Coke as Compared with Other Fossil Fuels and Other Commodities, 1991 (Million Short Tons)
Domestic Commodity Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coal Coke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Crude Petroleum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Petroleum Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chemical and Related Products . . . . . . . . . Forest Products, Wood, and Chips . . . . . . Pulp and Waste Paper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Soil, Sand, Gravel, Rock, and Stone . . . . . Iron Ore and Scrap . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Non-Ferrous Ores and Scrap . . . . . . . . . . Sulfur, Clay, and Salt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Primary Manufactured Goods . . . . . . . . . . Food and Farm Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . All Manufactured Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . Waste and Scrap, Not Elsewhere Classified . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total
a

Foreign Internal 180.0 4.0 45.5 110.6 80.5 16.0 0.4 63.9 6.8 4.6 0.9 24.9 88.7 3.2 6.9 602.9 Imports 2.7 1.2 293.0 96.1 26.3 2.9 0.9 14.8 15.1 21.6 2.1 49.6 22.6 24.1 0 553.5 Exports 113.8 0.6 0.1 55.9 72.7 29.4 10.9 10.7 13.8 4.6 4.5 21.2 143.2 10.3 0 459.2

Coastwise 13.5
b

Lakewise 18.1
b

331.8 6.1 464.3 420.8 216.5 52.0 12.3 134.7 91.6 30.9 7.6 106.3 263.9 43.6 11.1 2,092.5

122.8 108.0 22.9 1.6
b

0 2.0 0.3
b

11.6 0.1 0.1
b

0 23.4 55.3
b b

7.1 8.3 5.9 0.5 293.4

3.0 0.9
b b

Totala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

103.4

a Total is greater than column sums because of commodity groups not included and greater than row sums because of local and intra territories not included. b Less than 100,000 tons. Source: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, The U.S. Waterway System—Facts (January 1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

93

Table 44. U.S. Coal Export Loading Terminals, 1990
Existing Annual Terminal Capacity (million short tons) Storage Capacity Serving Railroads

Port/Terminal EAST COAST Philadelphia, PA Pier No. 124; Conrail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Port Richmond Conrail . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Camden, NJ Broadway Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Baltimore, MD Curtis Bay Chessie System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Curtis Bay Co. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Consol Marine Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Norfolk, VA Pier 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Newport News, VA Pier 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dominion Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Morehead City, NC North Carolina State Port Authority Bulk Facility . . . . Charleston, SC Massey Coal Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GULF COAST Mobile, AL McDuffie Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10.0 0.5

800 railcars 100,000 short tons

CONRAIL CONRAIL

0.5

500,000 short tons

CONRAIL

12.0 10.0 10.0

100 railcars 350,000 short tons 750,000 short tons

CSX CSX CONRAIL, CSX

43.0

7,000 railcars

Norfolk Southern

12.0 15.0

NA 180 railcars/ 2.05 million short tons NA

CSX CSX

3.0

Norfolk Southern

2.5 118.5

300 railcars/ 275,000 short tons --

CSX; Norfolk Southern --

23.0

2,000,000 short tons

Burlington Northern; CSX; Illinois Central; Norfolk Southern Burlington Northern; CSX; Illinois Central; Norfolk Southern CSX; Illinois Central; Kansas City Southern; Norfolk Southern; Public Belt; Southern Pacific; Union Pacific None None --

Bulk Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.0

1,200,000 short tons

Mississippi River Public Bulk Terminal (MRGO)a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.0

750,000 metric tons

Electro-Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . International Marine Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . At-Sea Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Burnside, LA Burnside Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mid-Stream Operation Delta Trans, Cooper/T. Smith, Paulina, & Darrow . . . See footnotes at end of table.

25.0 15.0 1.0b

4,500,000 short tons 1,500,000 short tons --

6.0

475,000 metric tons

Illinois Central

56.5

--

--

94

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 44. U.S. Coal Export Loading Terminals, 1990 (Continued)
Existing Annual Terminal Capacity (million short tons)

Port/Terminal Lake Charles, LA Bulk Terminal # 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Storage Capacity

Serving Railroads

4.5

325,000 short tons

Kansas City Southern; Southern Pacific; Union Pacific Kansas City Southern

Port Arthur, TX PABTEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Houston, TX Bulk Materials Handling Plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.0

500,000 metric tons

3.0

125 railcars

Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe; Burlington Northern; Southern Pacific; Union Pacific Corpus Christi Terminal Assn; Southern Pacific; Texas Mexican; Union Pacific Corpus Christi Terminal Assn; Southern Pacific; Texas Mexican; Union Pacific --

Bulk Dock 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.5

2,000 railcars

Bulk Dock 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5.0

2,000 railcars

Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . WEST COAST Los Angeles, CA Berth 49-50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

152.5

--

5.5

170,000 metric tons

Atchison Topeka and Santa Fe; Southern Pacific; Union Pacific Atchison Topeka and Santa Fe; Southern Pacific; Union Pacific Atchison Topeka and Santa Fe; Denver and Rio Grande Western; Southern Pacific; Union Pacific Alaska Railroad --

Long Beach, CA Pier G 214-215 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pier G 212-213 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Stockton, CA Bulk Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.0 4.5

50,000 tons/ 168 railcars

2.2

2,000,000 short tons/ 300 railcars

Seward, AK Seward Coal Terminal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GREAT LAKESd Con Rail Dock, Ashtabula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pittsburgh & Conneaut Dock Co., Conneaut . . . . . . . .

3.3 16.5

120,000 metric tons --

7.0 13.5

1,500,000 short tons 6,000,000 short tons

CONRAIL Bessemer & Lake Erie CONRAIL Norfolk Southern

Codan Marine, Erie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lower Lake Dock Co., Sandusky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.4 7.5

100,000 short tons 1,000,000 short tons + railcarsc 400,000 short tons

Toledo Docks, Toledo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . See footnotes at end of table.

16.0

CONRAIL; CSX

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

95

Table 44. U.S. Coal Export Loading Terminals, 1990 (Continued)
Existing Annual Terminal Capacity (million short tons) 44.4

Port/Terminal Total Lake Erie Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Other Coal Terminals KCBX South Chicago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Storage Capacity --

Serving Railroads --

8.0

450,000 short tons + railcarsc 7,000,000 short tons ----

Belt Line Railway Co. of Chicago Burlington Northern ----

Superior Midwest Energy Terminal Superior . . . . . . . Total Other Terminals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Grand Total Great Lakes Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . U.S. TOTAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a b

18.0 26.0 70.4 357.9

Terminal is actually on the Mississippi River Gulf Outlet. At-sea transfer capability from sea-going barges. c Number of railcars not reported. d Great Lakes ports are restricted in vessel size to the allowable St. Lawrence Seaway dock dimensions of 730 feet in length, 76 feet beam, and 26 feet draft. -- = Not applicable. NA = Not available. Source: U.S. Department of Transportation, Maritime Administration, Office of Port and Intermodel Development, Existing and Potential U.S. Coal Export Loading Terminals (Washington, DC, January 1992).

96

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 45. U.S. Coal Exports by Country of Destination, 1960-1993 (Million Short Tons)
Europe Belgium and Luxembourg 1.1 1.0 1.3 2.7 2.3 2.2 1.8 1.4 1.1 0.9 1.9 0.8 1.1 1.2 1.1 0.6 2.2 1.5 1.1 3.2 4.6 4.3 4.8 2.5 3.9 4.4 4.4 4.6 6.5 7.1 8.5 7.5 7.2 5.2

Year 1960 . . . . . . . . . . . 1961 . . . . . . . . . . . 1962 . . . . . . . . . . . 1963 . . . . . . . . . . . 1964 . . . . . . . . . . . 1965 . . . . . . . . . . . 1966 . . . . . . . . . . . 1967 . . . . . . . . . . . 1968 . . . . . . . . . . . 1969 . . . . . . . . . . . 1970 . . . . . . . . . . . 1971 . . . . . . . . . . . 1972 . . . . . . . . . . . 1973 . . . . . . . . . . . 1974 . . . . . . . . . . . 1975 . . . . . . . . . . . 1976 . . . . . . . . . . . 1977 . . . . . . . . . . . 1978 . . . . . . . . . . . 1979 . . . . . . . . . . . 1980 . . . . . . . . . . . 1981 . . . . . . . . . . . 1982 . . . . . . . . . . . 1983 . . . . . . . . . . . 1984 . . . . . . . . . . . 1985 . . . . . . . . . . . 1986 . . . . . . . . . . . 1987 . . . . . . . . . . . 1988 . . . . . . . . . . . 1989 . . . . . . . . . . . 1990 . . . . . . . . . . . 1991 . . . . . . . . . . . 1992 . . . . . . . . . . . 1993 . . . . . . . . . . .

Canada Brazil 12.8 12.1 12.3 14.6 14.8 16.3 16.5 15.8 17.1 17.3 19.1 18.0 18.7 16.7 14.2 17.3 16.9 17.7 15.7 19.5 17.5 18.2 18.6 17.2 20.4 16.4 14.5 16.2 19.2 16.8 15.5 11.2 15.1 8.9 1.1 1.0 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.7 1.7 1.8 1.8 2.0 1.9 1.9 1.6 1.3 2.0 2.2 2.3 1.5 2.8 3.3 2.7 3.1 3.6 4.7 5.9 5.7 5.8 5.3 5.7 5.8 7.1 6.4 5.2

Denmark 0.1 0.1
b b b b b

France 0.8 0.7 0.9 2.7 2.2 2.1 1.6 2.1 1.5 2.3 3.6 3.2 1.7 2.0 2.7 3.6 3.5 2.1 1.7 3.9 7.8 9.7 9.0 4.2 3.8 4.5 5.4 2.9 4.3 6.5 6.9 9.5 8.1 4.0

Germanya 4.6 4.3 5.1 5.6 5.2 4.7 4.9 4.7 3.8 3.5 5.0 2.9 2.4 1.6 1.5 2.0 1.0 0.9 0.6 2.6 2.5 4.3 2.3 1.5 0.9 1.1 0.8 0.5 0.7 0.7 1.1 1.7 1.0 0.5

Italy 4.9 4.8 6.0 7.9 8.1 9.0 7.8 5.9 4.3 3.7 4.3 2.7 3.7 3.3 3.9 4.5 4.2 4.1 3.2 5.0 7.1 10.5 11.3 8.1 7.6 10.3 10.4 9.5 11.1 11.2 11.9 11.3 9.3 6.9

Netherlands 2.8 2.6 3.3 5.0 4.2 3.4 3.2 2.2 1.5 1.6 2.1 1.6 2.3 1.8 2.6 2.1 3.5 2.0 1.1 2.0 4.7 6.8 5.9 4.2 5.5 6.3 5.6 4.1 5.1 6.1 8.4 9.6 9.1 5.6

Spain 0.3 0.2 0.8 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.0 1.5 1.8 3.2 2.6 2.1 2.2 2.0 2.7 2.5 1.6 0.8 1.4 3.4 6.4 5.6 3.3 2.3 3.5 2.6 2.5 2.5 3.3 3.8 4.7 4.5 4.1

United Kingdom Other 0 0
b b b b b

Total 17.1 15.7 19.1 27.7 26.0 25.1 23.1 19.4 15.5 15.2 21.8 16.6 16.9 14.4 16.1 19.0 19.9 15.0 11.0 23.9 41.9 57.0 51.3 33.1 32.8 45.1 42.6 34.2 45.1 51.6 58.4 65.5 57.3 37.6

Japan Other 5.6 6.6 6.5 6.1 6.5 7.5 7.8 12.2 15.8 21.4 27.6 19.7 18.0 19.3 27.3 25.4 18.8 15.9 10.1 15.7 23.1 25.9 25.8 17.9 16.3 15.4 11.4 11.1 14.1 13.8 13.3 12.3 12.3 11.9 1.3 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.1 0.9 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2 1.6 1.8 2.6 2.1 3.5 2.5 4.1 6.0 8.7 7.5 6.1 7.2 9.9 11.4 12.3 11.3 12.9 12.7 13.0 11.4 10.9

Total 38.0 36.4 40.2 50.4 49.5 51.0 50.1 50.1 51.2 56.9 71.7 57.3 56.7 53.6 60.7 66.3 60.0 54.3 40.7 66.0 91.7 112.5 106.3 77.8 81.5 92.7 85.5 79.6 95.0 100.8 105.8 109.0 102.5 74.5

2.4 2.0 1.8 2.4 2.6 2.3 2.5 2.1 1.9 1.3 1.8 1.1 1.1 1.3 0.9 1.6 2.1 2.1 2.2 4.4 6.0 8.8 7.6 6.4 5.3 10.3 8.4 6.6 8.5 8.9 9.5 10.4 8.5 6.9

0
b

0
b b

0
b

b

0
b

1.7 2.4 0.9 1.4 1.9 0.8 0.6 0.4 1.4 4.1 2.3 2.0 1.2 2.9 2.7 2.9 2.6 3.7 4.5 5.2 6.2 5.6 4.1

0 0 0
b

0.1
b

0.2 1.6 3.9 2.8 1.7 0.6 2.2 2.1 0.9 2.8 3.2 3.2 4.7 3.8 0.3

aThrough 1990, the data for Germany are for the former West Germany only. Beginning with 1991, the data for Germany are for the unified Germany, the former East Germany and West Germany. bLess than 50,000 tons. Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

97

Table 46. U.S. Bituminous Coal Exports by Grade of Coal, 1975-1993 (Thousand Short Tons)
Year 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Metallurgical 51,587 47,804 41,891 30,240 50,698 63,103 65,234 64,585 49,964 56,975 60,313 54,977 51,679 61,950 65,128 63,459 64,652 59,446 49,687 Steam 14,072 11,602 11,796 9,585 14,085 26,779 45,010 40,659 26,905 23,818 31,048 29,040 26,713 32,057 34,910 41,578 43,832 42,509 24,359 Total 65,669 59,406 53,687 39,825 64,783 89,882 110,243 105,244 76,870 80,793 91,361 84,017 78,392 94,007 100,038 105,037 108,484 101,954 74,046

Notes: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Sources: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, “Monthly Report EM 522” (Washington, DC, 1974), and National Coal Association, International Coal Review Annual 1994 (Washington, DC, 1974).

98

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 47.

U.S. Coal Produced for Export, by Origin and Destination, 1993 (Thousand Short Tons)
Destination

Coal-Producing State and Region of Origin Alabama . . . . . . . Alaska . . . . . . . . . Colorado . . . . . . . Illinois . . . . . . . . . Indiana . . . . . . . . . Kentucky Total . . . Eastern . . . . . . . Western . . . . . . . Maryland . . . . . . . Montana . . . . . . . . Oklahoma . . . . . . Pennsylvania Total Anthracite . . . . . Bituminous . . . . . Utah . . . . . . . . . . Virginia . . . . . . . . Washington . . . . . West Virginia Total Northern . . . . . . Southern . . . . . . Wyoming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Canada 0 0 0 0 0 1,416 1,416 0 0 54 0 597 293 304 346 1,229 1 4,108 920 3,187 0 7,350 0 401 7,350 401 7,751

Overseasa 5,888 743 1,128 670 188 8,106 7,902 204 295 67 11 4,911 24 4,887 2,613 13,021 93 29,052 1,607 27,445 974 61,069 1,073 5,617 62,131 5,628 67,759

Total 5,888 743 1,128 670 188 9,521 9,318 204 295 121 11 5,508 316 5,192 2,959 14,251 94 33,159 2,527 30,632 974 68,419 1,073 6,018 69,481 6,030 75,510

Appalachian Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Interior Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Western Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . East of the Mississippi River . . . . . . . . . . West of the Mississippi River . . . . . . . . . . U.S. Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a

Also includes Mexico. Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: Energy Information Administration, Form EIA-6, “Coal Distribution Report.”

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

99

Figure 35. U.S. Coal Exports, 1970-1993

120

100

Total

80
Million Short Tons

Europe
60

40

Japan
20

Canada Other

0 1970 1975 1980 Years 1985 1990

Source: Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994).

100

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Figure 36. World Coal Production and Leading Coal-Producing Countries, 1980-1992

5,400 5,200 World Total 5,000 4,800 4,600
Million Short Tons

4,400 4,200 4,000
Million Short Tons
Lea ding C oal-Pro ducing Countri es 1,200 1,000 800 600 0 1980 Former U.S.S.R. 1984 1988 1992 China U.S.

3,800 3,600 3,400 3,200

Years

0 3,000
1980 1982 1984 1986 Years 1988 1990 1992

World coal production rose from about 4.2 billion tons in 1980 to a record 5.3 billion tons in 1989 and was about 5.0 billion tons in 1992. The United States is a major coal producer; it ranked first from 1980 through 1982 and again in 1984.

Note: Coal production in 1992 from countries that composed the former U.S.S.R. was as follows, in million short tons: Kazakhstan, 139; Russia, 372; Ukraine, 148. Source: Energy Information Administration, International Energy Annual 1992, DOE/EIA-0219(92) (Washington, DC, January 1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

101

Figure 37. Average Quality of Coal Produced for Power Plants by Producing State, 1993
He at V al ue (M M b tu per sh ort ton ) S ul fur C on tent (a v er ag e w ei g ht pe rc e nt) S ul f ur ( po und s p er MM B tu) A sh C o nte nt ( av e ra ge we i gh t p er c en t)

26 25 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12

5 VA, T N , MD P A, W V K Y, AL , KS O K, O H UT I L , IN AZ C O, M O KS OH , OK 4 MO

5

19 18 17

NM

MO

TX WA

4

16 15 IA 14 IA 13 KS OH OK IL IN 11 10 12 MO MD L A, KS , AL PA OH W V, UT , O K VA, K Y ND,TN AZ , ( U S Av er a ge ) IL,IN CO 8 7 MT 6 WY 5

( U S a ve r age ) IA NM MT WY 2 WA 3

IA

3

IL IN

2
PA KY, M D W V,T N A L, ( U S Ave r age ) T X, VA LA N D ,W A NM MT , AZ UT C O, WY TX PA, KY, N D M D ,W V, ( U S A ve ra ge ) T N, L A AL V A, W A NM MT AZ W Y,U T , CO 9

LA ND TX

1

1

0

0

0

0

Note: MMBtu = million British thermal units. Source: Energy Information Administration, Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Utility Plants 1993, DOE/EIA-0191(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994).

102

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Figure 38. Cost and Quality of Coal Shipped to Electric Utilities, by Origin, 1993
Lignite (LA, MT, ND, TX)
Btu/lb: 6,374 Sulfur: Percent by Weight 0.94 Pounds per Million Btu 1.51 Ash, Percent by Weight: 14.43 Delivered Cost: Per Million Btu $1.04 Per Short Ton $13.25 Quantity: 80.9 Million Short Tons

Western Region
Btu/lb: 9,112 Sulfur: Percent by Weight 0.43 Pounds per Million Btu 0.47 Ash, Percent by Weight: 7.42 Delivered Cost: Per Million Btu $1.27 Per Short Ton: $23.23 Quantity: 312.6 Million Short Tons

Interior Region (Excludes Lignite)
Btu/lb: 11,383 Sulfur: Percent by Weight 2.72 Pounds per Million Btu 2.41 Ash, Percent by Weight: 9.86 Delivered Cost: Per Million Btu $1.34 Per Short Ton: $30.60 Quantity: 98.5 Million Short Tons

Appalachian Region
Btu/lb: 12,451 Sulfur: Percent by Weight 1.57 Pounds per Million Btu 1.27 Ash, Percent by Weight: 10.49 Delivered Cost: Per Million Btu $1.54 Per Short Ton: $38.41 Quantity: 272.5 Million Short Tons

WA

MT

ND WY SD NE KS

MN VT WI IA MO MI IL IN KY OK AR TN MS AL GA TX LA FL SC PA OH WV VA NC NY

ME NH MA RI CT NJ DE MD D.C.

OR CA NV

ID UT

AZ

CO NM

Imports
Btu/lb: 12,019 Sulfur: Percent by Weight 0.65 Pounds per Million Btu 0.54 Ash, Percent by Weight: 6.78 Delivered Cost: Per Million Btu $1.53 Per Short Ton $36.82 Quantity: 4.6 Million Short Tons

United States
Btu/lb: 10,315 Sulfur: Percent by Weight 1.18 Pounds per Million Btu 1.11 Ash, Percent by Weight: 9.55 Delivered Cost: Per Million Btu $1.38 Per Short Ton $28.58 Quantity: 769.2 Million Short Tons

Coal was mined in 26 States in 1993.

Source: Energy Information Administration, Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Utility Plants 1993, DOE/EIA-019(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994).

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

103

Table 48. U.S. Air Pollutant Emission Estimates from Coal Combustion as Compared with Total Emissions and Total Coal Consumption, Selected Years, 1970, 1980, 1990-1992 (Million Short Tons)
Emission/Source Sulfur Oxides Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nitrogen Oxides Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carbon Monoxide Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reactive Volatile Organic Compounds Totalb . . . . . . Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Particulates (PM-10) Totald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coal Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electric Utilities (percent) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a b

1970 31.3 19.3 20.9 4.3 118.7 0.7 29.7 0.1 12.1e 0.2 523.2 61.2

1980 26.2
a

1990 22.8 17.3 23.6 7.3 92.4 0.3 23.7
c

1991 22.8 17.1 23.4 7.3 90.7 0.3 23.4
c

1992 22.7 17.3 23.1 7.3 87.2 0.3 22.7
c

23.7 6.1 129.0 0.3 28.4
c

7.0e 0.1 702.7 81.0

50.8 0.2 895.5 86.4

55.4 0.2 887.6 87.0

51.4 0.2 892.4 87.4

Data not detailed for coal and other fossil fuels, but contained in aggregate estimate. These compounds along with nitrogen oxides contribute to the formation of ozone and other photochemical oxidants in the atmosphere. c Less than .05 million short tons. d Less than 10 microns in aerodynamic diameter. e Excludes fugitive dust from sources such as agricultural tilling, construction activities, mining and quarrying, and wind erosion. Notes: Estimate for 1990-1992 are preliminary. Emissions of lead from coal combustion totaled less than 100 short tons in recent years. Sources: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, National Air Pollutant Emission Trends, 1900-1992 (October 1993); and Energy Information Administration, Annual Energy Review 1993, DOE/EIA-0384(93) (Washington, DC, July 1994).

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Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 49. U.S. Utility Coal Combustion Byproducts: Production and Use, 1992 (Million Short Tons)
Flue Gas Desulfurization Material 15.9

Production/Use Byproduct Productiona . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Byproduct Use External Markets Cement and Concrete Products Structural Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . Road Base/Subbase . . . . . . . . Mineral Filler in Asphalt . . . . . Snow and Ice Control . . . . . . . Blasting Grit/Roofing Granules Grouting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Coal Mining Applications . . . . . Wall Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Waste Stabilization . . . . . . . . . Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Internal Utility Applications Cement and Concrete Products Structural Fill . . . . . . . . . . . . . RoadBase/Subbase . . . . . . . . Snow and Ice Control . . . . . . . Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Subtotal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Total . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a b

Fly Ash 48.1

Bottom Ash 13.9

Boiler Slag 4.1

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.1 0.8 1.2 0.2 0 0
b b

0.5 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.5
b

0.3 0.2
b

0 0
b

0
b

0 0.5 0.5 10.4
b

0
b b

0.1 0.3 2.0 0 0 0
b

0 0 0 0 0 0.2
b b

1.9 0 0.1 0.6
b

0 3.0 0
b b b b b

0.3 0 0
b

. . . . . .

1.3
b

0 1.4 2.7 13.1

1.2 1.9 3.9

0 0
b

3.1

0.3

Based on consumption of 779.8 million short tons. Less than 100,000 short tons. Note: Totals may not equal sum of components because of independent rounding. Source: American Coal Ash Association.

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

105

Table 50. Trace Elements in U.S. Coal: Highest Average Concentration by Rank and Widest Range by Region and Rank of Coal
Highest Average Average (parts per million) 1.2 23 2.2 0.9 NA 47 9.7 191 14 300 0.23 28 1,800 3.4 7.1 3.4 Amount (parts per million) 0.04-43 0.2-420 0.08-32 0.01-170 50-8,000 1.5-220 0.7-930 20-1,900 0.78-590 1.4-3,500 0.01-12 0.87-580 <4-6,000 0.12-150 0.04-79 0.06-76 Widest Range

Trace Elementa Antimony . . Arsenic . . . Beryllium . . Cadmium . . Chlorine . . . Chromium . Cobalt . . . . Fluorine . . . Lead . . . . . Manganese Mercury . . . Nickel . . . . Phosphorus Selenium . . Thorium . . . Uranium . . .
a

Chemical Symbol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sb As Be Cd Cl Cr Co F Pb Mn Hg Ni P Se Th U

Coal Rank Bituminous Lignite Bituminous Bituminous NA Anthracite Bituminous Lignite Bituminous Lignite Anthracite Anthracite Lignite Bituminous Lignite Lignite

Region and Coal Rank Rocky Mountain subbituminous Northern Plains subbituminous Rocky Mountain subbituminous Interior bituminous Appalachian bituminous Appalachian bituminous Appalachian bituminous Appalachian bituminous Interior bituminous Rocky Mountain subbituminous Northern Plains lignite Interior bituminous Appalachian bituminous Appalachian bituminous Interior bituminous Rocky Mountain subbituminous

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Elements identified as hazardous air pollutants by the Clean Air Act, as amended in 1990. Note: 100 parts per million = 0.01 percent; 1,000 parts per million = 0.1 percent. When coal is burned in a power plant, the trace elements are concentrated as follows: in fly ash—Sb, As, Be, Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, and Se; in both fly ash and bottom ash—Co, Mn, Th, U, and probably P; as a vapor—Cl, F, and Hg. NA = Not available. Source: U.S. Department of Energy, Argonne National Laboratory, Environmental Assessment and Information Sciences Division, Air Toxic Emissions from the Combustion of Coal: Identifying and Quantifying Hazardous Air Pollutants from U.S. Coals, ANL/EAIS/TM-83 (Argonne, IL, September 1992).

106

Energy Information Administration/ Coal Data: A Reference

Table 51. Classification of Coals by Rank
Coal Rank Coal Group Basis of Classification Fixed Carbon Percentagea Equal to or Greater than I. Anthracite 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. Meta-anthracite Anthracite Semianthraciteb Low-volatile bituminous Medium-volatile bituminous High-volatile A bituminous 98 92 86 78 d 69 --

Coals Classified by Fixed Carbon

Less than -98 92 86 78 d 69

Agglomerating Character Non-agglomerating Non-agglomerating Non-agglomerating Commonly agglomeratingc Commonly agglomeratingc Commonly agglomeratingc

II. Bituminous

Heat Content in Btu per Pounde Equal to or Greater than 13,000 11,500 10,500 10,500 9,500 8,300 6,300 --

Coals Classified by Heat Content II. Bituminous 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 1. 2. High-volatile B bituminous High-volatile C bituminous High-volatile C bituminous Subbituminous A Subbituminous B Subbituminous C Lignite A Lignite B

Less than 14,000 13,000 11,500 11,500 10,500 9,500 8,300 6,300 Commonly agglomeratingc Commonly agglomeratingc agglomerating Non-agglomerating Non-agglomerating Non-agglomerating Non-agglomerating Non-agglomerating

III. Subbituminous

IV. Lignitic

a Percentages are based on dry-mineral-matter-free coal. Volatile matter (not shown) is the complement of fixed carbon; that is, the percentages of fixed carbon and volatile matter sum to 100 percent. Therefore, as fixed carbon percentage decreases, volatile matter percentage increases by the same amount. b If agglomerating, classify in low-volatile group of the bituminous class. c There may be nonglomerating varieties in the bituminous class, most notable in the high-volatile C bituminous group. d Coals having 69 percent or more fixed carbon are classified according to fixed carbon, regardless of Btu value. Coals with less than 69 percent fixed carbon, but with 14,000 or more Btu per pound, are classified as high-volatile A bituminous. e Calorific values in Btu per pound, on a moist-mineral-matter-free basis. Note: Terms in this table are defined in the Glossary. Source: Adapted from American Society for Testing and Materials 1988, Standard Classification of Coal by Rank, ASTM Designation D38884.

Table 52. Approximate Weights of Unbroken (Solid) Coal in the Ground
Coal Rank Anthracite . . . . . . . . Bituminous Coal . . . Subbituminous Coal Lignite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pounds per Cubic Foot 91.7 82.4 81.1 80.5 Tons per Acre-Foot 2,000 1,800 1,770 1,750 Tons per Square Mile-Foot 1,280,000 1,150,000 1,130,000 1,120,000

Notes: The weight of broken coal varies with the size of the coal. In general, a cubic foot of broken bituminous coal weighs 47 to 52 pounds and a cubic foot of broken anthracite weighs 52 to 56 pounds. (By comparison, a cubic foot of water weighs 62.4 pounds, and a cubic foot of limestone weighs about 165 pounds.) A ton of broken coal occupies approximately 40 cubic feet. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Bulletin 1412, Coal Resources of the United States, (Washington, DC, 1975).

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Table 53. Representative Analyses of U.S. Coal
Proximate Percent Classification by State/County Rank Meta-anthracite . . Rhode Island Newport Type Samplea Moisture 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 13.2 --4.3 --2.6 --2.9 --2.1 --2.3 --8.5 --14.4 --16.9 --22.2 --26.6 --36.8 --Volatile Fixed Matter Carbon 2.6 2.9 3.8 5.1 5.3 5.9 10.6 10.8 11.7 17.7 18.2 19.3 24.4 24.9 26.5 36.5 37.4 39.5 36.4 39.8 45.0 35.4 41.4 46.6 34.8 41.8 43.7 33.2 42.7 45.2 33.2 45.2 49.1 27.8 43.9 48.4 65.3 75.3 96.2 81.0 84.6 94.1 79.3 81.5 88.3 74.0 76.3 80.7 67.4 68.8 73.5 56.0 57.2 60.5 44.3 48.5 55.0 40.6 47.4 53.4 44.7 53.8 56.3 40.3 51.7 54.8 34.4 46.9 50.9 29.5 46.7 51.6 Ultimate Percenta Sul- Hydrofur gen 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.8 0.8 0.9 1.7 1.8 1.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.1 0.8 0.8 0.8 2.8 3.0 3.4 3.8 4.4 5.0 1.4 1.7 1.8 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.9 1.4 1.6 1.9 0.5 0.6 2.9 2.5 2.8 3.8 3.6 3.9 4.6 4.4 4.6 5.0 4.8 5.2 5.5 5.4 5.7 5.4 4.9 5.5 5.8 4.9 5.6 6.0 4.9 5.2 6.9 5.6 6.0 6.5 4.8 5.0 6.9 4.5 5.0 Carbon 64.2 74.1 94.7 79.7 83.3 92.5 81.4 83.6 90.6 83.2 85.7 90.7 81.6 83.3 88.9 78.4 80.2 84.8 65.1 71.2 80.6 59.7 69.8 78.6 60.4 72.7 76.0 53.9 69.3 73.4 50.0 67.6 73.3 40.6 64.3 70.9 Nitrogen 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.6 1.6 1.8 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.7 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.0 1.2 1.3 1.2 1.5 1.5 1.0 1.2 1.3 0.9 1.2 1.3 0.6 1.0 1.1 Calorific Value, Oxy- Btu per gen pound 14.5 9,310 3.1 10,740 4.0 13,720 6.1 12,880 2.4 13,470 2.8 14,980 4.0 13,880 1.7 14,240 1.8 15,430 4.7 14,400 2.3 14,830 2.5 15,690 4.9 14,310 3.0 14,610 3.2 15,590 8.5 14,040 6.6 14,370 7.0 15,180 14.6 11,680 7.7 12,760 8.8 14,460 20.1 10,810 8.5 12,630 9.5 14,230 27.4 10,650 14.8 12,810 15.5 13,390 33.4 9,610 17.7 12,350 18.7 13,080 36.2 8,630 17.7 11,760 19.5 12,780 45.1 7,000 19.4 11,080 21.4 12,230

Bed Middle

Ash 18.9 21.6 -9.6 10.1 -7.5 7.7 -5.4 5.5 -6.1 6.3 -5.2 5.4 -10.8 11.7 -9.6 11.2 -3.6 4.4 -4.3 5.6 -5.8 7.9 -5.9 9.4 --

Anthracite . . . . . . Pennsylvania Lackawana

Clark

Semianthracite . . Arkansas Johnson Low-volatile Bituminous Coal West Virginia Wyoming Medium-volatile Bituminous Coal Pennsylvania Clearfield High-volatile A Bituminous Coal West Virginia Marion

Lower Hartshorne

Pocahontas No. 3

Upper Kittanning

Pittsburgh

High-volatile B Bituminous Coal Kentucky No. 9 (Western field) Muhlenburg High-volatile C Bituminous Coal Illinois No. 5 Sangamon Subbituminous A Coal . . . . . . . . . Wyoming Sweetwater Subbituminous B Coal . . . . . . . . . Wyoming Sheridan Subbituminous C Coal . . . . . . . . . Wyoming Campbell

No. 3

Monarch

Wyodak

Lignite . . . . . . . . North Dakota McLean
a

Unnamed

1. Sample as received 2. Moisture-free 3. Moisture- and ash-free. -- = Not applicable. Notes: Source and analysis of coal were selected to represent the various ranks of the specifications for classification of rank adopted by the American Society for Testing and materials. Sources: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines; and Wyoming State Geological Survey (Wyodak bed).

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Table 54. Standard Anthracite Specifications
Percent Undersize State Broken . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Egg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . State Round Test Mesh (inches) Through 4-3/8 Over 3-1/4 to 3 Through 3-1/4 to 3 Over 2-7/16 Through 2-7/16 Over 1-5/8 Through 1-5/8 Over 13/16 Through 13/16 Over 9/16 Through 9/16 Over 5/16 Through 5/16 Over 3/16 Through 3/16 Over 3/32 Through 3/32 Over 3/64 Through 3/64 Maximum -15 -15 -15 -15 -15 -15 -17 -20 -30 No limit Minimum -7-1/2 -7-1/2 -7-1/2 -7-1/2 -7-1/2 -7-1/2 -7-1/2 -10 -10 -Maximum Impuritiesa State 1-1/2 -1-1/2 -2 -3 -4 ----------Bone 2 -2 3 3 -4 -5 ----------Ashb 11 -11 11 11 -11 -12 -13 -13 -15 -15 -16

Stove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chestnut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Buckwheat No. 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Buckwheat No. 2 (rice) . . . . . . . . . .

Buckwheat No. 3 (barley) . . . . . . . .

Buckwheat No. 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Buckwheat No. 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
a

When slate content in the sizes from broken to chestnut, inclusive, is less than above standards, bone content may be increased by 1-1/2 times the decrease in slate content under the allowable limits, but slate content specified above shall not be exceeded in any event. A tolerance of 1 percent is allowed on maximum percentage of undersize and maximum percentage of content. Maximum percentage of undersize is applicable only to anthracite as it is produced at preparation plant. Slate is defined as any material that has less than 40 percent fixed carbon. Bone is defined as any material that has 40 percent or more, but less than 75 percent, fixed carbon. b Ash determinations are on a dry basis. Note: Standard anthracite specifications as approved and adopted by the Anthracite Committee, an agency of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania, effective July 28, 1947, and amended July 20, 1953. Approximate size classification for bituminous coal are: Run-of-mine, 8 inches; lump, 5 inches; egg, 2 to 5 inches; nut 1-1/4 to 2 inches; stoker, 3/4 to 1-1/4 inches; slack, less than 3/4 inches. -- = Not applicable. Source: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Mines, “Anthracite,” Mineral Facts and Problems, Washington, DC, 1965.

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Coal Terminology and Related Information

An electric drill prepares overburden for blasting by boring holes in a prescribed pattern, making it easier to excavate. The spoil pile in the background is overburden removed from another part of the mine.

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Coal Terminology and Related Information
Acid Mine Drainage: This refers to water pollution that results when sulfur-bearing minerals associated with coal are exposed to air and water and form sulfuric acid and ferrous sulfate. The ferrous sulfate can further react to form ferric hydroxide, or yellowboy, a yellow-orange iron precipitate found in streams and rivers polluted by acid mine drainage. Acid Rain: Also called acid precipitation or acid deposition, acid rain is precipitation containing harmful amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids formed primarily by nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels are burned. It can be wet precipitation (rain, snow, or fog) or dry precipitation (absorbed gaseous and particulate matter, aerosol particles, or dust). Acid rain has a pH below 5.6. Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6, which is slightly acidic. The term pH is a measure of acidity or alkalinity on a range from 0 to 14. Readings below 7, which is neutral, indicate increased acidity; readings above 7 indicate increased alkalinity. As-Received Coal: Coal in the condition as received by the consumer or the laboratory analyzing the coal. Bone Coal: Coal with a high ash content (25 to 50 percent, by weight); it is dull in appearance, hard, and compact. Btu (British thermal unit): A measure of energy, the Btu is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 pound of water (approximately 1 pint) by 1 degree Fahrenheit. The Btu is a convenient measure by which to compare the energy content of various fuels. One Btu of energy is approximately equivalent to the heat from one match tip. Heat available from coal, expressed as Btu per pound or ton, is a major factor in coal price. Captive Coal: This refers to coal produced and consumed by the mine operator, a subsidiary, or the parent company (for example, steel companies and electric utilities). Coal Analysis: This determines the composition and properties of coal so it can be ranked and used most effectively. Proximate analysis determines the behavior of a coal when burned. It measures (in percent) the moisture content, volatile matter (gases released when coal is heated, principally hydrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and various compounds of carbon and hydrogen), fixed carbon (solid combustible residue remaining after the volatile matter is driven off— principally carbon, but may contain sulfur, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen), and ash (incombustible matter consisting of silica, iron, alumina, and other material similar to ordinary sand, silt, and clay). The moisture content affects the ease with which coal can be handled and burned. Volatile matter and fixed carbon provide guidelines for determining the intensity of the heat produced (volatile matter influences the ignitability and overall combustion of a coal and contributes about 25 to 40 percent of the heat; fixed carbon, 60 to 75 percent). Ash increases the weight of coal, adds to the cost of handling, and can cause fuel bed and furnace problems due to the formation of clinkers (fused ash) and slag (melted ash that sticks to furnace walls). Proximate analysis may be reported in several ways, such as “as received,” “dry,” and “dry, mineral-matterfree (dmmf).” Proximate analysis is commonly used in industrial applications, such as in the purchase of coal for electricity generation. Ultimate analysis determines the percentage of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and ash. It may be reported in several ways, such as “as received,” “dry,” and “dry, mineral-matter-free (dmmf).” Ultimate analysis is used for a more thorough scientific investigation of coal. Heating value, or heat content, is determined in terms of Btu, both on an as-received basis (including moisture) and on a dry basis. It is the amount of heat released by the complete combustion of a specified quantity of coal (usually 1 pound or 1 short ton) as carbon and hydrogen combine with oxygen in the air to produce carbon dioxide and water. Higher heating value (HHV), or gross heat content, includes the amount of energy used to transform the water into steam. Lower heating value, or net heat content, excludes the energy used to vaporize the water and is generally calculated to be 93 to 97 percent of the gross heat value. EIA conversion factors typically represent gross heat content.

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Proximate Analysis

Fixed Carbon

Ash

Moisture

Volatile Matter

Carbon

Ultimate Analysis
Ox y

Ash
ge n

og dr Hy

Sulfur Nitrogen

en

Two different types of analyses of a bituminous coal.

Agglomerating refers to coal that softens when heated and forms a hard gray coke; this coal is called caking coal. Not all caking coals are coking coals. The agglomerating value is used to differentiate between coal ranks and also is a guide to determine how a particular coal reacts in a furnace. Agglutinating refers to the binding qualities of a coal. The agglutinating value is an indication of how well a coke made from a particular coal will perform in a blast furnace. It is also called a caking index. Other analyses include the determination of the ashsoftening temperature, the ash-fusion temperature (the temperature at which the ash forms clinkers or slag), the free-swelling index (a guide to a coal’s coking characteristics), the Gray-King assay (determines the suitability of coal for making coke), and the Hardgrove Grindability Index, or HGI (a measure of the ease with

which coal can be pulverized as compared with a “standard” coal with a 100 HGI value; the lower the index, the harder to grind and vice-versa). In a petrographic analysis, thin sections of coal or highly polished blocks of coal are studied with a microscope to determine the physical composition, both for scientific purposes and for estimating the rank and coking potential. Coal Blending: The process of combining two or more coals with different characteristics to obtain coal with a certain quality, such as a low sulfur content. Coal Chemicals: Coal chemicals are obtained from the gases and vapor recovered from the manufacturing of coke. Generally, crude tar, ammonia, crude light oil, and gas are the basic products recovered. They are refined or processed to yield a variety of chemical materials.

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Coal Classification: In the United States, coals are classified by rank progressively from lignite (least carbonaceous) to anthracite (most carbonaceous) based on the proximate analyses of various properties (fixed carbon, volatile matter, heating value, and agglomerating character), following methods prescribed by the American Society for Testing and Materials. The International Coal Classification of the Economic Commission for Europe recognizes two broad categories of coal, “brown coal” and “hard coal.” In terms of U.S. coal classification, the international classification of brown coal includes lignite and lower-ranked subbituminous coal, whereas hard coal includes all higher rank coals. Coal Face: This is the exposed area from which coal is extracted. Coal Fines: Coal with a maximum particle size usually less than one-sixteenth inch and rarely above oneeighth inch. Coal Grade: This classification refers to coal quality and use. The classification includes the following categories: Briquettes are made from compressed coal dust, with or without a binding agent such as asphalt. Cleaned coal or prepared coal has been processed to reduce the amount of impurities present and improve the burning characteristics. Compliance coal is a coal, or a blend of coal, that meets sulfur dioxide emission standards for air quality without the need for flue gas desulfurization. Culm and silt are waste materials from preparation plants. In the anthracite region, culm consists of coarse rock fragments containing as much as 30 percent smallsized coal. Silt is a mixture of very fine coal particles (approximately 40 percent) and rock dust that has settled out from waste water from the plants. The terms culm and silt are sometimes used interchangeably and are sometimes called refuse. Culm and silt have a heat value ranging from 8 to 17 million Btu per ton. Low-ash coal contains less than 8 percent ash by weight; medium-ash coal, 8 percent to less than 15 percent by weight; high-ash coal, more than 15 percent ash by weight. Low-sulfur coal contains 1 percent or less sulfur by weight. For air quality standards, “low-sulfur coal” contains 0.6 pounds or less sulfur per million Btu

(equivalent to 1.2 pounds of sulfur dioxide per million Btu). Medium-sulfur coal contains more than 1 percent to less than 3 percent sulfur by weight; 0.61 to 1.67 pounds of sulfur per million Btu. High-sulfur coal contains more than 3 percent sulfur by weight; more than 1.67 pounds of sulfur per million Btu. Metallurgical coal (or coking coal) is a coal that can be converted into coke. It must have a low ash and sulfur content and form a coke that is strong enough to support the weight of iron ore and limestone in a blast furnace. A blend of two or more bituminous coals is usually required to make coke. Pulverized coal is coal that has been crushed to a fine dust in a grinding mill. It is blown into the combustion zone of a furnace and burns very rapidly and efficiently. Slack coal usually refers to bituminous coal one-half inch or smaller in size. Steam coal refers to coal used in boilers to generate steam to produce electricity or for other purposes. Stoker coal refers to coal that has been crushed to specific sizes (but not powdered) for burning on a grate in automatic firing equipment. Coal Preparation (Cleaning/Beneficiation/Processing) Processes: Dense (heavy) medium processes use a thick solution, usually a mixture of magnetite and water, to separate coal from impurities by gravity separation. Flotation processes treat fine-sized coal with an oil-based reagent that attracts air bubbles in a liquid medium; the coal floats to the surface as a froth, leaving the refuse below. Hydraulic processes use currents of water to separate coal from impurities. Pneumatic processes use currents of air to separate coal from impurities. Coal Rank: This classification is based on the fixed carbon, volatile matter, and heating value. It is an indication of the progressive alteration, or coalification, from lignite to anthracite. Rank can also be determined by measuring the reflectance of vitrinite, one of the several organic components (macerals) of coal. Lignite, the lowest rank of coal, is brownish black and has a high moisture content, sometimes as high as 45

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percent. It tends to disintegrate when exposed to weather. The heat content of lignite ranges from 9 to 17 million Btu per ton as received and averages about 14 million Btu per ton. The ignition temperature is approximately 600 degrees Fahrenheit. Lignite is mined in California, Louisiana, Montana, North Dakota, and Texas, and is used mainly to generate electricity in power plants that are relatively close to the mines. The term “lignite” is used interchangeably with “brown coal” in other countries. Subbituminous coal, or black lignite, is dull black and usually contains 20 to 30 percent moisture. The heat content of subbituminous coal ranges from 16 to 24 million Btu per ton as received and averages about 18 million Btu per ton. Subbituminous coal, mined in western coal fields (notably the Powder River Basin), is used mostly for generating electricity. Bituminous coal, or soft coal, is the most common coal. It is dense, black, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material. Its moisture content usually is less than 20 percent. The heating value ranges from 19 to 30 million Btu per ton as received and averages about 24 million Btu per ton. The ignition temperature ranges from about 700 to almost 900 degrees Fahrenheit. Bituminous coal is mined chiefly in Appalachian and interior coal fields. It is used for generating electricity, making coke, and space heating. Anthracite, or hard coal, is the highest rank of economically usable coal. It is jet black with a high luster. The moisture content generally is less than 15 percent. Anthracite contains approximately 22 to 28 million Btu per ton as received and averages about 25 million Btu per ton. Its ignition temperature is approximately 925 to 970 degrees Fahrenheit. Virtually all of the anthracite mined is from northeastern Pennsylvania. It is used mostly for space heating and generating electricity. Meta-anthracite, the highest rank of coal, is a low-quality fuel. It is dull gray or black, and has a high ash content. It was intermittently mined in the Narragansett Basin of Rhode Island and Massachusetts. The last mine, at Cranston, Rhode Island, closed in 1959. Coal from the area averaged about 19 million Btu per ton as received. Coal Sulfur: Coal sulfur occurs in three forms: organic, sulfate, and pyritic. Organic sulfur is an integral part of the coal matrix and cannot be removed by conventional physical separation. Sulfate sulfur is usually negligible. Pyritic sulfur occurs as the minerals pyrite and marcasite; larger sizes generally can be removed by cleaning the coal.

Coal Type: This classification is based on physical characteristics or microscopic constituents. Examples of coal types are banded coal, boghead coal, bright coal, cannel coal, and splint coal. The term is also used to classify coal according to heat and sulfur content. (See Coal Grade.) Coalbed Degasification: This refers to the removal of methane, or coalbed gas, from a coal mine before or during mining. Coalbed Methane: Methane is generated during coal formation and is contained in the coal microstructure. Typical recovery entails pumping water out of the coal to allow the gas to escape. Methane is the principal component of natural gas. Coalbed methane can be added to natural gas pipelines without any special treatment. Coke: Coke is a combustible residue consisting of residual ash and fixed carbon made from bituminous coal (or blends of bituminous coal) from which the volatile constituents are driven off by baking in an oven at temperatures as high as 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit. The process is called carbonization. Coke is hard and porous, has a gray, submetallic luster, and is strong enough to support a load of iron ore in a blast furnace. It is used chiefly as a fuel and reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace. Coke has a heat value of about 25 million Btu per ton. Coke Battery: A series of adjacent coke ovens, usually 45 or more, sharing coal charging and byproduct control equipment. Coke Breeze: The term refers to the fine sizes of crushed coke that will pass through a ½-inch or ¾-inch screen opening. It is commonly used for sintering (agglomerating) iron ore, a process in which fine ore is mixed with coke and ignited to produce semifused lumps of ore. Coke Button: A button-shaped piece of coke resulting from a standard laboratory test that indicates the coking or free-swelling characteristics of a coal; expressed in numbers and compared with a standard. Coke Oven: An individual coking chamber made of silica brick walls and ranging from 4 to 14 feet in height, 30 to 45 feet in length, and 1 to 2 feet in width. Byproduct ovens contain a series of long, narrow chambers arranged in rows and heated by flues in which are burned a portion of the combustible gases generated by the coking of coal. All the volatile

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products are collected as ammonia, tar, and gas, and may be further processed into other byproducts. Coke-Oven Gas: This by-product of coke production is used as fuel for heating coke ovens, generating steam, and producing heat for other purposes. Fossil Fuel: Fuel such as coal, crude oil, or natural gas, formed from the fossil remains of organic material. Foundry Coke: This is a special coke, generally 3 inches and larger in size, that is used in furnaces to produce cast and ductile iron products. It is a source of heat and also helps maintain the required carbon content of the metal product. Foundry coke production requires lower temperatures and longer times than blast furnace coke. Fuel Ratio: The ratio of fixed carbon to volatile matter in coal. Gob: This refers to the caved area of broken rock in an underground mine. A gob pile is a heap of waste from preparation plants. Interburden: The material that separates the coalbeds of a surface deposit. Middlings: In coal preparation, this material, also called mid-coal, is neither clean coal nor refuse; due to their intermediate specific gravity, middlings sink only partway in the washing vessels and are removed by auxiliary means. Open-Market Coal: Coal that is sold on the commercial market, in contrast to captive coal. Overburden: Any material, consolidated or unconsolidated, that overlies a coal deposit. Overburden ratio (stripping ratio) refers to the amount of overburden that must be removed to excavate a given quantity of coal. It is commonly expressed in cubic yards per ton of coal, but is sometimes expressed as a ratio comparing the thickness of the overburden with the thickness of the coalbed. Spoil is the overburden removed in gaining access to a coalbed in surface mining. Swell factor is the ratio of the increase in volume, normally expressed as a percentage, that occurs in the overburden material when it is excavated and deposited in a loose state. Parting: A layer of rock within a coalbed that lies roughly parallel to the coalbed and has the effect of splitting the bed into two divisions.

Peat: Peat is partially decomposed plant debris, and is considered an early stage in the development of coal. Peat is distinguished from lignite by the presence of free cellulose and a high moisture content (exceeding 70 percent). The heat content of air-dried peat (about 50 percent moisture) is about 9 million Btu per ton. Most U.S. peat is used as a soil conditioner. The first U.S. electric power plant fueled by peat began operation in Maine in 1990. Raw Coal: Coal that has received no preparation other than possibly screening. Round Test Mesh: A sieving screen with round holes, the dimensions of which are of specific sizes to allow certain sizes of coal to pass through while retaining other sizes. Run-of-Mine Coal: Coal as it comes from the mine prior to screening or any other treatment. Screenings: The undersized coal from a screening process, usually one-half inch or smaller. Solvent Refined Coal (SRC): A tar-like fuel produced from coal when it is crushed and mixed with a hydrocarbon solvent at high temperature and pressure. Spontaneous Combustion, or Self-Heating, of Coal: A naturally occurring process caused by the oxidation of coal. It is most common in low-rank coals and is a potential problem in storing and transporting coal for extended periods. Factors involved in spontaneous combustion include the size of the coal (the smaller sizes are more susceptible), the moisture content, and the sulfur content. Heat buildup in stored coal can degrade the quality of coal, cause it to smolder, and lead to a fire. Surface Mining Equipment: An auger machine is a large horizontal drill, generally 3 feet or more in diameter and up to about 100 feet long. It can remove coal at a rate of more than 25 tons per minute. A bucket-wheel excavator is a continuous-digging machine equipped with a boom that has a rotating wheel with buckets along its edge. The buckets scoop up material, then empty onto a conveyor leading to a spoil bank. This excavator is best suited for removing overburden that does not require blasting. It is also used in combination with conveyors to move topsoil from areas to be mined to storage.

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A bulldozer is a tractor with a movable steel blade mounted on the front. It can be used to remove overburden that needs little or no blasting. A carryall scraper (or pan scraper) is a self-loading machine, usually self-propelled, with a scraper-like retractable bottom. It is used to excavate and haul overburden. A continuous surface miner, used in some lignite mines, is equipped with crawlers, a rotating cutting head, and a conveyor. It travels over the bed, excavating a swath up to 13 feet wide and 2 feet deep. A dragline excavator removes overburden to expose the coal by means of a scoop bucket that is suspended from a long boom. The dragline digs by pulling the bucket toward the machine by means of a wire rope. A walking dragline is equipped with large outrigger platforms, or walking beams, instead of crawler tracks. It “walks” by the alternate movement of the walking beams. A drilling rig is used to determine the amount and type of overburden overlying a coal deposit and the extent of the deposit, to delineate major geologic features, and to drill holes for explosives to fragment the overburden for easier removal. A front-end loader is a tractor with a digging bucket mounted and operated on the front. It is often used to remove overburden in contour mining and to load coal. A hydraulic shovel excavates and loads by means of a bucket attached to a rigid arm that is hinged to a boom. A power shovel removes overburden and loads coal by means of a digging bucket mounted at the end of an arm suspended from a boom. The shovel digs by pushing the bucket forward and upward. It does not dig below the level at which it stands. A thin-seam miner resembles an auger machine but has a drum-type cutting head that cuts a rectangular cross section. Surface Mining Methods: An auger mine recovers coal through the use of a largediameter drill driven into a coalbed in the side of a surface mine pit. It usually follows contour surface mining, particularly when the overburden is too costly to excavate. (See also punch mine, a type of underground mine.)

Area mining is practiced on relatively flat or gently rolling terrain. It recovers coal by mining long strips successively; the material excavated from the strip being mined is deposited in the strip pit previously mined. A bench is a ledge in a surface mine that forms a step from which excavation will take place at a constant level. A box cut is the first cut made to remove the overburden from the coal where no open side exists; this results in a highwall on both sides of the cut. The overburden is placed on unmined land, normally outside the area to be mined. Contour mining is practiced when the coal is mined on hillsides. The mining follows the contour of the hillside until the overburden becomes uneconomical to remove. This method creates a shelf, or bench, on the hillside. Several variations of contour mining have been developed to control environmental problems. These methods include slope reduction (overburden is spread so that the angle of the slope on the hillside is reduced), head-of-hollow fill (overburden is placed in narrow V-shaped valleys to control erosion), and blockcut (overburden from current mining is backfilled into a previously mined cut). Explosives casting is a technique designed to blast up to 65 percent of the overburden into the mine pit for easier removal. It differs from conventional overburden blasting, which only fractures the overburden before it is removed by excavating equipment. A highwall is the unexcavated face of exposed overburden and coal in a surface mine. Mountaintop mining, sometimes considered a variation of contour mining, refers to the mining of a coalbed that underlies the top of a mountain. The overburden, which is the mountaintop, is completely removed so that all of the coal can be recovered. The overburden material is later replaced in the mined-out area. This method leaves large plateaus of level land. Open-pit coal mining is essentially a combination of contour and area mining methods and is used to mine thick, steeply inclined coalbeds. The overburden is removed by power shovels and trucks. Tipple: Originally, the place on the surface where mine cars were tipped or emptied of their coal, but now expanded to include the place where trucks, railroad cars, or conveyors hauling coal from a mine dump

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the coal. Sometimes applied to the surface structures of a mine, including the preparation plant and loading tracks. Underground Mining Equipment: An armored face conveyor is used to transport coal from the face of a longwall operation and also to support the shearing machine or plow. A coal-cutting machine is used in conventional mining to undercut, topcut, or shear the coal face so that coal can be fractured easily when blasted. It cuts 9 to 13 feet into the bed. A continuous auger machine is used in mining coalbeds less than 3 feet thick. The auger has a cutting depth of about 5 feet and is 20 to 28 inches in diameter. Continuous auger mining usually uses a conveyor belt to haul the coal to the surface. A continuous-mining machine, used during continuous mining, cuts or rips coal from the face and loads it into shuttle cars or conveyors in one operation. It eliminates the use of blasting devices and performs many functions of other equipment such as drills, cutting machines, and loaders. A continuous-mining machine typically has a turning “drum” with sharp bits that cut and dig out the coal for 16 to 22 feet before mining stops so that the mined area can be supported with roof bolts. This machine can mine coal at the rate of 8 to 15 tons per minute. Conveyor systems consist of two types. A mainline conveyor is usually a permanent installation that carries coal to the surface. A section conveyor connects the working face to the mainline conveyor. A face drill is used in conventional mining to drill shotholes in the coalbed for explosive charges. A loading machine is used in conventional mining to scoop broken coal from the working area and load it into a shuttle car, which hauls the coal to mine cars or conveyors for delivery to the surface. A mine locomotive, operating on tracks, is used to haul mine cars containing coal and other material, and to move personnel in specially designed “mantrip” cars. Large locomotives can haul more than 20 tons at a speed of about 10 miles per hour. Most mine locomotives run on electricity provided by a trolley wire; some are battery-powered. A plow is a longwall-mining machine with a blade that has fixed bits or a saw-toothed edge.

A ram car, or shuttle ram, is a rubber-tired haulage vehicle that is unloaded through the use of a movable steel plate located at the back of the haulage bed. A roof-bolting machine, or roof bolter, is used to drill holes and place bolts to support the mine roof. Roof bolting units can be installed on a continuous-mining machine. A scoop is a rubber-tired haulage vehicle used in thin coalbeds. A shearer is a longwall-mining machine with one or two rotating cutting drums. A shield is a movable roof support used in longwall mining. A shortwall-mining machine generally is a continuousmining machine used with a powered, self-advancing roof support system. It shears coal from a short coal face (up to about 150 feet long). The broken coal is hauled by shuttle cars to a conveyor belt. A shuttle car is a rubber-tired haulage vehicle that is unloaded by a built-in conveyor. Underground Mining Methods: A cross cut in an underground mine is a short tunnel connecting two parallel entries. Development refers to the mining needed to provide access to the area to be produced. It includes driving shafts and slopes. A drift mine is driven horizontally into coal that is exposed or accessible in a hillside. An entry in an underground mine is a tunnel-like passage, usually driven entirely within the coalbed and rectangular in cross section, typically about 6 feet high and 20 feet wide. The number of entries is determined by the requirements for ventilation, haulage, escapeways, and mine services such as power, water, and drainage. In a hydraulic mine, high-pressure water jets break the coal from a steeply inclined, thick coalbed that would be difficult to mine with the usual underground methods. The coal is then transported to the surface by a system of flumes or by pipeline. Although currently not in commercial use in the United States, hydraulic mining is used in western Canada. In longwall mining, a panel, or block, of coal generally about 700 feet wide and often over 1 mile long is

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completely extracted, leaving no pillars to support the mined-out area. The working area is protected by a movable, powered roof support system. The caved area (gob) compacts and, after initial subsidence, supports the overlying strata. Longwall mining is used where the coalbed is thick and generally flat, and where surface subsidence is acceptable. A portal is the surface entrance to an underground mine. It is the point where the main haulage and ventilation entries of the mine intersect the earth’s surface. A punch mine is a type of small drift mine used to recover coal from strip-mine highwalls or from small, otherwise uneconomical, coal deposits. Rock dusting, sprayed in an underground coal mine, reduces the possibility of coal dust explosions. Rock dust is a very fine noncombustible material, usually pulverized limestone. Roof bolting is the principal method of supporting the mine roof. In roof bolting, long bolts, 2 to 10 feet long with an expansion shell or with resin grouting, are placed in the mine roof. The bolts reinforce the roof by pulling together rock strata to make a strong beam, or by fastening weak strata to strong strata. In a room-and-pillar mining system, the most common method, the mine roof is supported mainly by coal

pillars left at regular intervals. Rooms are places where the coal is mined; pillars are areas of coal left between the rooms. Room-and-pillar mining is done either by (1) conventional mining, which involves a series of operations that require cutting the working face of the coalbed so that it breaks easily when blasted with explosives or high-pressure air, and then loading the broken coal or (2) continuous mining, in which a continuous mining machine extracts and removes coal from the working face in one operation. When a section of a mine has been fully developed, additional coal may be extracted by mining the supportive pillars until the roof caves in; this procedure is called room-and-pillar retreat mining. A shaft mine is driven vertically to the coal deposit. A shortwall mining system generally refers to room-andpillar mining in which the working face is wider than usual but smaller (less than 150 feet) than that in longwall mining. A slope mine is driven at an angle to reach the coal deposit. Ventilation, accomplished with large fans, is essential to supply fresh air and to remove gases and dust from the mine.

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International Energy Agency. Concise Guide to World Coalfields. London, England: World Coal Resources and Reserves Data Bank Service, 1983. Keystone Coal Industry Manual 1994. MacLean Hunter Publishing Co., 1993. Chicago, IL:

Lake Carriers’ Association. 1993 Annual Report of Lake Carriers’ Association. Cleveland, OH, 1994.
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Leonard, Joseph W., Ed. Coal Preparation, 4th ed. New York, NY: Society of Mining Engineers, American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., 1979. Merritt, Roy D. Coal Exploration, Mine Planning, and Development. Park Ridge, NJ: Noyes Data Corp., 1986. Meyers, Robert A., ed. Coal Handbook. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1981. Moore, Elwood S. Coal: Its Properties, Analysis, Classification, Geology, Extraction, Uses and Distribution, 2d ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1940. Murchison, Duncan G., and Westoll, R. Stanley, Ed. Coal and Coal-Bearing Strata. New York, NY: Elsevier, 1968. National Coal Association. Washington, DC. 1994 Coal Data 1994 Edition.

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers, Inc., 1983. The President’s Commission on Coal. The American Coal Miner: A Report on Community and Living Conditions in the Coalfields. Washington, DC, 1980. Valkovic, Vlado. Trace Elements in Coal, 2 Vols. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc., 1983. 1993 U.S. Coal Export Manual. Fieldston Publications, Inc., 1993. Washington, DC:

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AMC Journal. American Mining Congress, 1920 N St., N.W., Washington, DC 20036. Coal (incorporates Coal Age and Coal Mining). Maclean Hunter Publishing Co., 29 North Wacker Drive, Chicago, IL 60606. Coal News. National Coal Association, 1130 17th St. N.W., Washington, DC 20036. Coal Outlook. Pasha Publications, 1401 Wilson Blvd., Suite 910, Arlington, VA 22209. Coal & Synfuels Technology. Pasha Publications, 1401 Wilson Blvd., Suite 910, Arlington, VA 22209. Coal Transportation. Fieldston Publications, Inc., 1920 N St. N.W., Washington, DC 20036. Coal Voice. National Coal Association, 1130 17th St., N.W., Washington, DC 20036. Coal Week. McGraw-Hill, 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Electrical World. MacGraw-Hill, 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. International Coal. King Publishing Co., P.O. Box 52210, Knoxville, TN 37950. International Journal of Coal Geology. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Co., 100AH Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Journal of Coal Quality. Western Kentucky University, Bowling Green, KY 42101.

National Coal Association. Coal Transportation Statistics 1993 Edition. Washington, DC. 1993. National Coal Association. Washington, DC. 1994. Facts About Coal 1994.

National Coal Association. International Coal Review Annual 1994. Washington, DC. 1994. Peng, Syd S. Coal Mine Ground Control, 2nd ed. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1986. Peng, Syd S., and Chiang, H. S. Longwall Mining. New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1984. Petroleum Information Corporation. Coalbed Methane: An Old Hazard Becomes a New Resource. Petroleum Frontiers, Vol. 3, No. 4. Denver, CO, 1986. Rose, Adam, and Frias, Oscar. The Impact of Coal on the U.S. Economy. Report to the National Coal Association. Washington, DC: The National Coal Association, 1994. Ross, Charles A., and Ross, June R. P. Ed. Geology of Coal. Benchmark Papers in Geology, Vol. 77. New York, NY: Van Nostrand, 1984. Steam, Its Generation and Use, 40th ed. Barberton, OH: The Babcock & Wilcox Co., 1992. Stefanko, Robert. Coal Mining Technology: Theory and Practice. New York, NY: Society of Mining Engineers,

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Journal of Commerce. 155 Michigan Avenue, Suite 700, Chicago, IL 60601. Keystone News Bulletin. Maclean Hunter Publishing Co., 29 North Wacker Drive, Chicago, IL 60606. Landmarc. National Coal Association, 1130 17th St., N.W., Washington, DC 20036. Mining Engineering. Society of Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., 8307 Shaffer Parkway, Littleton, CO 80127-5002. Northern Coal. King Publishing Co., P.O. Box 52210, Knoxville, TN 37950. Power Engineering. Technical Publishing, P.O. Box 1030, Barrington, IL 60010. Quarterly Review of Methane from Coal Seams Technology. Gas Research Institute, 8600 West Bryn Manor Ave., Chicago, Il 60631. Southern Coal. King Publishing Co., P.O. Box 52210, Knoxville, TN 37950. United Mine Workers Journal. United Mine Workers of America, 900 15th St., NW., Washington, DC 20005. Western Coal. King Publishing Co., P.O. Box 52210, Knoxville, TN 37950. World Mining Equipment. Technical Publishing, 875 Third Ave., New York, NY 10022.

Assistant Secretary for Fossil Energy. Clean Coal Technology: The New Coal Era, DOE/FE-0913-P. Washington DC, June 1990. Assistant Secretary for Fossil Energy. Clean Coal Technology Demonstration Program: Program Update 1993, DOE/FE-0299-P. Washington, DC, March 1994. Assistant Secretary for Fossil Energy. Report to the United States Congress: Clean Coal Technology Export Markets and Financing Mechanisms, DOE/FE-0307P. Washington, DC, May 1994. Assistant Secretary for Fossil Energy. The Clean Coal Technology Program—Lessons Learned, DOE/FE-031. Washington, DC, July 1994. “Coal Preparation: The Foundation for Modern Coal Use.” PETC Review, Issue 5. Pittsburgh, PA, Spring 1992, pp. 4-13. National Energy Strategy: Powerful Ideas for America. First Edition 1991/1992. Washington, DC, February 1991. National Energy Strategy: Powerful Ideas for America, One Year Later. Washington, DC, February 1992. Office of Fossil Energy. Coal Combustion Waste Management Study, DOE/FE/62017.H1. Washington, DC, February 1993. Technical Information Center. U.S. Energy Deskbook, DOE/IR-051114-1. Oakridge, TN, June 1982. “What is Coal?” PETC Review, Issue 10. Pittsburgh, PA, Summer 1994, pp. 22-28.

U.S Department of Energy
“A Coal Combustion Primer.” PETC Review, Issue 2. Pittsburgh, PA, September 1990, pp. 15-19. Assistant Secretary for Environment, Safety, and Health. Energy Technologies and the Environment: Environmental Information Handbook, DOE/EH-0077. Washington, DC, October 1988. Assistant Secretary for Fossil Energy. Clean Coal Technologies: Research, Development, and Demonstration Program Plan, DOE/FE-0284. Washington, DC, November 1993. Assistant Secretary for Fossil Energy. Clean Coal Technology: The Investment Pays Off, DOE/FE-0291. Washington, DC, January 1994.

Argonne National Laboratory
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“A Profile of New Coal Mines in the 1980’s.” Coal Production 1990, DOE/EIA-0118(90). Washington, DC, September 1991, pp. 1-12. Annual Energy Outlook 1993, Washington, DC, January 1993. DOE/EIA-0383(93).

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Inventory of Power Plants in the United States 1992, DOE/EIA-0095(92). Washington, DC, October 1993. “Large U.S. Coal Mines.” Coal Production 1986, DOE/EIA-0118(86). Washington, DC, January 1988, pp. 4-9. Monthly Energy Review, Washington, DC, June 1994. DOE/EIA-0035(94/06).

Annual Outlook for U.S. Coal 1991, DOE/EIA-0333(91). Washington, DC, July 1991. Annual Prospects for World Coal Trade 1991, DOE/EIA-0363(91). Washington, DC, June 1991. “Carbon Dioxide Emission Factors for Coal.” Quarterly Coal Report January-March 1994, DOE/EIA-0121 (94/1Q). Washington, DC, September 1994, pp. 1-8. “Coal and the Railroads.” Coal Distribution JanuaryDecember 1985, DOE/EIA-0125(85/4Q). Washington, DC, April 1986, pp. 1-5. “Coal Combustion: A Review of Coal Combustion Technology from Stokers to Fluidized Beds.” Coal Distribution January-March 1987, DOE/EIA-0125(87/1Q). Washington, DC, July 1987, pp. 2-7. Coal Distribution January-December 1991, DOE/EIA-0125 (91/4Q). Washington, DC, April 1991 and prior issues. Coal Industry Annual 1993, DOE/EIA-0584(93). Washington, DC, December 1994. Coal Production 1992, DOE/EIA-0118(92). Washington, DC, October 1993 and prior issues. Cost and Quality of Fuels for Electric Utility Plants 1993, DOE/EIA-0191(93). Washington, DC, July 1994. Electric Power Annual 1992, Washington, DC, January 1994. DOE/EIA-348(90).

Profiles of Foreign Direct Investment in U.S. Energy 1992, DOE/EIA-0466(92). Washington, DC, May 1994. “Lignite: A Low Rank Coal Gains Status.” Coal Distribution January-December 1986, DOE/EIA0125(4/Q). Washington, DC, April 1987, pp. 3-7. “Pennsylvania Anthracite: An Overview of the ’Hard Coal’ Industry.” Coal Distribution January-September 1986, DOE/EIA-0125(86/3Q). Washington, DC, January 1987, pp. 3-7. Quarterly Coal Report October-December 1993, DOE/EIA-0121 (93/4Q). Washington, DC, May 1994 and prior issues. State Coal Profiles, DOE/EIA-0576. Washington, DC, January 1994. State Energy Data Report 1992: Consumption Estimates, DOE/EIA-0214(92). Washington, DC, June 1994. “The Appalachian Coal Basin: An Overview of Coal Deposits and Production.” Coal Production 1987, DOE/EIA-118(87). Washington, DC, December 1988, pp. 1-6. The Changing Structure of the Electric Power Industry 1970-1991, DOE/EIA-0562. Washington, DC, March 1993. The Changing Structure of the U.S. Coal Industry: An Update, DOE/EIA-0513(93). Washington, DC, July 1993. “The Interior Coal Region of the United States: Overview and Summary.” Coal Production 1988, DOE/EIA-118(88). Washington, DC, November 1989, pp. 1-8. “The Powder River Basin.” Coal Production 1985, DOE/EIA-0118(85). Washington, DC, November 1986, pp. 4-8. The U.S. Coal Industry, 1970-1990: Two Decades of Change, DOE/EIA-0559. Washington, DC, November 1992.

Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 19871992, DOE/EIA-0573. Washington, DC, October 1994 and prior issue. Energy Policy Act Transportation Rate Study, Availability of Data and Studies, DOE/EIA-0571. Washington, DC, October 1993. “Federal and Indian Coal Lands: A Growing Source of Energy and Revenue.” Coal Production 1992, DOE/EIA0118(92). Washington, DC, October 1993, pp. 1-14. Historical Monthly Energy Review 1973-1992, DOE/EIA0035(73-92). Washington, DC, August 1994. International Energy Annual 1992, DOE/EIA-0219(92). Washington, DC, January 1994.

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Trends in Contract Coal Transportation 1987-1987, DOE/EIA-0549. Washington, DC, September 1991. “Update on U.S. Coalbed Methane Production,” Natural Gas Monthly October 1990, DOE/EIA-0130(90/10). Washington, DC, December 1990, pp. 1-15. “U.S. Coal Production in the 1980’s: An Overview.” Coal Production 1989, DOE/EIA-118(89). Washington, DC. November 1990, pp. 1-10. U.S. Coal Reserves: An Update by Heat and Sulfur Content, DOE/EIA-0529(92). Washington, DC, February 1993. “U.S. Coalbed Methane Production,” Natural Gas Monthly January 1994, DOE/EIA-0130(94/01). Washington, DC, January 1994, pp. 1-11. Weekly Coal Production, DOE/EIA-0218 (various issues). Washington, DC. “Wyoming Coal: An Overview.” Coal Production 1991, DOE/EIA-0118(91). Washington, DC, October 1992, pp. 1-11.

The U.S. Waterway System—Facts. Alexandria, VA. January 1994.

U.S. Department of the Interior
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Bureau of Mines:
A Cost Comparison of Selected Coal Mines From Australia, Canada, Colombia, South Africa, and the United States. Special Publication. Washington, DC, 1993. A Dictionary of Mining, Mineral, and Related Terms. Washington, DC, 1968. Bureau of Mines Research 93. Washington, DC, 1993. Causes of Coal Miner Absenteeism. Information Circular 9161. Pittsburgh, PA, 1987. Characterization of the 1986 Coal Mining Workforce. Information Circular 9192. Minneapolis, MN, 1988. Coal Carbonization in the United States, 1900-62. Information Circular 8251. Washington, DC, 1965. Demonstrated Reserve Base of U.S. Coals with Potential for Use in Manufacture of Metallurgical Coal. Information Circular 8805. Washington, DC, 1979. Forms of Sulfur in U.S. Coals. Information Circular 8301. Washington, DC, 1966. Historical Summary of Coal-Mine Explosions in the United States, 1810-1958. Bulletin 586. Washington, DC, 1960. Human Factors Contributing to Groundfall Accidents in Underground Mines: Workers’ Views. Information Circular 9127. Pittsburgh, PA, 1987. Mine Health and Safety Research. Washington, DC, 1993. Mineral Facts and Problems. “Anthracite” and ”Bituminous Coal and Lignite.” Washington, DC, 1960, 1965, 1970 and 1975. Minerals Yearbook. “Bituminous Coal and Lignite,” “Coke and Coal Chemicals,” and “Pennsylvania Anthracite.” Washington, DC, 1932-1976.

The National Coal Council (A Federal advisory committee to the Secretary of Energy.)
Clean Coal Technology for Sustainable Development. Arlington, VA, February 1994. Improving Coal’s Image: A National Energy Strategy Imperative. Arlington, VA, January 1992. Industrial Use of Coal and Clean Coal Technology. Arlington, CA, June 1990. The Export of U.S. Coal and Coal Technologies. Arlington, VA, November 1993. The Long-Range Role of Coal in the Future Energy Strategy of the United States. Arlington, VA, June 1990. The Near Term Role for Coal in the Future Energy Strategy of the United States. Arlington, VA, January 1992. The Use of Coal in the Industrial, Commercial, Residential, and Transportation Sectors. Arlington, VA, December 1988.

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Overview of Mine Subsidence Insurance Programs in the United States. Information Circular 9362. Pittsburgh, PA, 1993. Production of Mineral Fuels and Hydropower in the United States Since 1800. Information Circular 8155. Washington, DC, 1963. The History and Future of Longwall Mining in the United States. Information Circular 9316. Pittsburgh, PA 1992. The U.S. Foundry Coke Industry. Information Circular 8759. Washington, DC, 1977.

Mine Safety and Health Administration. Injury Experience in Coal Mining 1993 and prior issues. Denver, CO. Mine Safety and Health Administration. Summary of Selected Injury Experience and Worktime for the Mining industry in the United States, 1931-77. Information Report 1132. Denver, CO, 1984.

U.S. Department of Transportation
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Geological Survey: Survey
Coal Map of North America. Denver, CO, 1988. Coal Resources of the United States, January 1, 1974. Bulletin 1412. Washington, DC, 1975.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Office of Air and Radiation. The Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act: Air and Radiation (ANR-443), EPA 400K-93-001. Washington, DC, April 1993. Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards. National Air Pollutant Emission Trends: 1900-1992, EPA-454/R-93032. Research Triangle Park, NC, October 1993.

Minerals Management Service:
Mineral Revenues 1993: Report on Receipts from Federal and Indian Leases and prior issues. Washington, DC.

U.S. Department of Labor
Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment, Hours, and Earnings, United States, 1909-90, Volume I. Bulletin 2370 Washington, DC, March 1991. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Employment, Hours, and Earnings, United States, 1981-93. Bulletin 2429. Washington, DC, August 1993. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Technological Change and Its Impact on Labor in Four Industries. Chapter 1, Coal Mining. Bulletin 2409. Washington, DC, October 1992.

U.S. International Trade Commission
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Sources of Information on Coal
Many publications about coal and coal-related subjects are sold by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, Telephone: (202) 783-3238. Reference copies of many of these publications are available to the public in Federal Depository libraries located nationwide. A list of depository libraries is available free upon request from: Federal Depository Library Program, Office of the Public Printer, Washington, DC 20401. Energy Research Abstracts (ERA) provides abstracting and indexing coverage of all scientific and technical reports, journal articles, conference papers and proceedings, books, patents, theses, and monographs originated by the U.S. Department of Energy, its laboratories, energy center and contractors. ERA also covers other energy information prepared in report form by Federal and State government organizations, foreign governments, and domestic and foreign universities and research organizations. ERA coverage of nonreport literature is limited to that generated by Department of Energy activity. DOE and DOE contractors who have OSTI deposit accounts can obtain ERA from the Office of Scientific and Technical Information, P.O. Box 62, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, Attention: Information Services. For further information, call (615) 576-1155. ERA is available to the public on a subscription basis from the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 20402. Coal Abstracts provides comprehensive world-wide coverage of books, journals, report, dissertations, and conference proceedings in the field of coal science and technology from the evaluation of deposits to the ultimate uses of coal as an energy source and raw material, including environmental effects. Coal Abstracts is published by the International Energy Agency (IEA), Coal Research, Gemini House, 10-18 Putney Hill, London SW15 6AA, United Kingdom.

U.S. Department Of Energy National Energy Information Center, EI-231 Forrestal Building Washington, DC 20585 (202) 586-8800 Public Inquires Office of Public Affairs Forrestal Building Washington, DC 20585 (202) 586-5575 Office of Scientific and Technical Information P.O.Box 62 Oak Ridge, TN 37831 (615) 576-1301 Morgantown Energy Technology Center P.O.Box 880 Morgantown, WV 26507 (304) 285-4764 Pittsburgh Energy Technology Center P.O. Box 10940 Pittsburgh, PA 15236 (412) 892-6029

Other Sources American Boiler Manufacturers Association 950 North Glebe Road, Suite 160 Arlington, VA 22203 (703) 522-7350 American Coal Ash Association, Inc., 2760 Eisenhower Ave, Suit 304 Alexandria, VA 22314 (703) 317-2400 American Coal Foundation 918 16th Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20006 (202) 466-8630 American Coke & Coal Chemicals Institute 1225 23rd Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20037 (202) 452-1140 Bureau of Land Management U.S. Department of the Interior 18th & C Streets, NW. Washington, DC 20240 (202) 208-3435
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Bureau of Mines U.S. Department of the Interior Pittsburgh Research Center Cochran Mill Rd. P.O. Box 18070 Pittsburgh, PA 15236 (412) 892-6602 Coal & Slurry Technology Association 1156 15th Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20005 (202) 296-1133 Geological Survey U.S. Department of the Interior The National Center 12201 Sunrise Valley Drive Reston, VA 22092 (703) 648-4000 Mine Safety and Health Administration U.S. Department of Labor 40154 Wilson Blvd. Arlington, VA 22203 (703) 235-1456 Minerals Information Office U.S. Department of the Interior 18th & C Streets, N.W. Washington, DC 20240 (202) 208-5520

Minerals Management Service U.S. Department of the Interior 18th & C Streets, N.W. Washington, DC 20240 (202) 208-3983 National Coal Association 1130 17th Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20036 (202) 463-2625 National Technical Information Service U.S. Department of Commerce 5285 Port Royal Rd. Springfield, VA 22161 (703) 487-4650; (800) 553-NTIS Office of Surface Mining U.S. Department of the Interior 1951 Constitution Ave., NW Washington, DC 20240 (202) 208-2553 U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 401 M Street S.W. Washington, DC 20460 (202) 260-2080 or 7751 In coal-producing States: State Mine Agencies and Geological Surveys.

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